ماهاتما گاندی از ویکی‌پدیا، دانشنامهٔ آزاد. پرش به: ناوبری, جستجو
مهانداس کارامچاند گاندی (به خط دونگری: मोहनदास करमचन्द गांधी؛ گجراتی: મોહનદાસ કરમચંદ ગાંધી؛ زاده: ۲ اکتبر ۱۸۶۹ - درگذشت: ۳۰ ژانویه ۱۹۴۸) (۱۰ مهر ۱۲۴۸-۹ بهمن ۱۳۲۶) رهبر سیاسی و معنوی هندیها بود که ملت هند را در راه آزادی از استعمار امپراتوری بریتانیا رهبری کرد. در طول زندگیش استفاده از هر نوع ترور و خشونت برای رسیدن به مقاصد را رد میکرد. فلسفهٔ ضدخشونت گاندی که خود نام ساتیاگراها (در سانسکریت به معنای تلاش و کوشش برای رسیدن به حقیقت؛ تحت‌اللفظی: محکم گرفتن حقیقت) روی بسیاری از جنبش‌های مقاومت ضدخشونت در سراسر جهان و تا امروز تأثیر گذارده‌است.
از زمانی که وی مسئولیت رهبری نبرد برای آزادی و کنگره ملی هند در سال ۱۹۱۸ (۱۲۹۶) را به عهده گرفت، به عنوان نمادی ملی شناخته شد و میلیون‌ها نفر از مردم او را با لقب ماهاتما یا روح بزرگ یاد می‌کردند. هر چند که او از القاب افتخارآمیز بیزار بود ولی امروز هم همگی او را با نام ماهاتما گاندی می‌شناسند. سوای اینکه بسیاری او را به عنوان یکی از بزرگترین رهبران تاریخ تلقی می‌کنند، مردم هند از او با عنوان «پدر ملت» یا باپو (در هندی به معنای پدر) یاد می‌کنند. زادروز وی در هند به عنوان یک روز تعطیل ملی است و گاندی جایانتی نام دارد.
گاندی توانست با استفاده از شیوهٔ ضدخشونت نافرمانی مدنی استقلال هند را از بریتانیا بگیرد و در نهایت دست امپراتوری بریتانیا را از هند کوتاه کند. شیوهٔ مقاومت آرام وی به مستعمرات دیگر هم نفوذ کرده و آنها را در راه استقلال میهن خود تشویق میکرد. اصل ساتیاگراهای گاندی روی بسیاری از فعالان آزادیخواه نظیر دکتر مارتین لوترکینگ، تنزین گیاتسو، لخ والسا، استفان بیکو، آنگ سان سو کی و نلسون ماندلا تأثیر گذاشت. البته همهٔ این رهبران نتوانستند کاملاً به اصل سخت ضدخشونت و ضدمقاومت وی وفادار بمانند.
گاندی همیشه می‌گفت که اصول او ساده هستند و از باورهای سنتی هندو به نام‌های ساتیا (حقیقت) و آهیمسا (ضدخشونت) گرفته شده‌اند. او می‌گفت «من چیز جدیدی ندارم که به دنیا یاد بدهم. حقیقت و ضدخشونت بودن هم‌سن کوه‌ها هستند». فهرست مندرجات [نهفتن]
* ۱ دوران طفولیت تا جوانی * ۲ اصول گاندی * ۳ حقیقت * ۴ عدم خشونت * ۵ گیاه خواری * ۶ آیین برهما * ۷ ساده زیستی * ۸ ایمان * ۹ منبع * ۱۰ پانویس‌ها * ۱۱ پیوند به بیرون
[ویرایش] دوران طفولیت تا جوانی گاندی و همسرش کاستوربا (۱۹۰۲) گاندی و همسرش کاستوربا (۱۹۰۲)
«مهانداس کارامچاند گاندی» در سال ۱۸۶۹ در یک خانواده هندو در گجرات هند دیده به جهان گشود. گاندی در آغوش مادری فداکار رشد میکرد و از تاثیرات جائین گجرات، رنگ و شکل می‌گرفت او از همان سنین کودکی با مرام آسیب نرساندن به موجودات زنده خوگرفت و به گیاهخواری، روزه داری برای خودسازی و خالص نمودن خویش وزندگی توام با گذشت اعضای فرق ومذاهب مختلف اهتمام ورزید. خانواده اواز طبقه «وایشا» یا تجار هندی بودند.
در ماه می ۱۸۸۳ در حالیکه ۱۳ سال داشت با دختری هم سن خود ازدواج نمود؛ والدینش هر دو آنها را اداره می‌کردند(همسرش کاستوربا یا کاستوربای نام داشت که وی را «با» صدا می‌زدند).
در آن زمان در لندنپایتخت یک کشور امپریالیستی زندگی سختی را می‌گذراند، چرا که برای مادرش قسم یاد کرده بود از خوردن گوشت، الکل و لاقیدی جنسی احتراز نماید. اگر چه سعی میکرد آداب وسنن «انگلیسی» را بیاموزد - و مثلا به کلاس آموزش رقص برود - ولی هرگز خود را به خوردن گوشت راضی نکرد اما سیر کردن خود با کلم و گیاهان دیگر هم در آن کشور ساده نبود. زن صاحب خانه او را به یک رستوران خام خواری راهنمایی کرد.
به انجمن خام خواران پیوست و حتی به عنوان عضو کمیتهآن در آمد و یک مقر محلی نیز برای آن انجمن دایر نمود. بعدها این تجربیات گرانبهای خود را در امر سازماندهی موسسات به کار گرفت. برخی از همقطاران گیاهخوار وخام خوار او عضو انجمن فلاسفه الهیات بودند که در سال ۱۸۷۵ تاسیس شده بود و هدف ترویج برادری جهانی را دنبال میکرد و به مطالعه بوداگرایی و ادبیات هندو برهمنی می‌پرداخت. آنان گاندی را تشویق کردند تا به مطالعه « باگاواد جیتا » بپردازد.وقتی به هند بازگشت، در امر وکالت در بومبایموفقیت چندانی نداشت ولذا به شغل پاره وقت تدریس در یک دبیرستان روی آورد. پس از مدتی به راجکوت بازگشت وبه عریضه نویسی برای شاکیان مشغول شد. ولی مجوز این کار را به او ندادند و مجبور شد کارش را تعطیل نماید.
[ویرایش] اصول گاندی
[ویرایش] حقیقت
گاندی زندگی خویش را وقف آشکار ساختن حقیقت یا ساتیا کرد. اوتلاش میکرد با یادگیری و درس گرفتن از اشتباهات خود و عملکرد خود به حقیقت دست یابد. وی شرح حال زندگی خویش را تحت عنوان «ماجرای تجربیات من با کشف حقیقت » نوشته‌است.
گاندی اعلام کرد که مهمترین نبرد او تلاشی بود که برای شکست شیاطین درونی ترسها و ناامنی‌های خود به عمل آورده‌است. گاندی خلاصه‌ای از اعتقادات خویش را درقالب «خداوند حقیقت است» مطرح نمود وبعدها دیدگاه‌های خویش را اصلاح کرد وبیان داشت که «حقیقت خداوند است». اولین بیان ممکن است مخاطب را با این شبهه مواجه کند که گاندی از حقیقت برای شرح دیدگاه خویش نسبت به خداوند ونه تعریف شالوده وی استعفا کرده‌است ساتیا یا حقیقت در فلسفه گاندی همان خداوند وی تمام ویژگی‌های مفهوم هندویی خدارا درفلسفه خویش آورده‌است (برهمن).
[ویرایش] عدم خشونت
مفهوم عدم خشونت (آهیما) و عدم مقاومت درتفکر مذهبی هندی تاریخی کهن دارد ودر مضامین مذهبی هندو بودائیت، جین، یهود ومسیحی به کرات دیده می‌شود. گاندی درشرح فلسفه وشیوه زندگی خود در خود بیوگرافی نویسی اش چنین آورده :
«وقتی ناامید می‌شوم بخاطر می‌آورم که در طول تاریخ راه حق و عشق همواره پیروز بوده‌است حکمرانان و قاتل در برهه‌ای شکست ناپذیر جلوه می‌کنند ولی درنهایت همه آنها سقوط کرده‌اند - همیشه به این واقعیت فکر کنید.» «چه فرقی می‌کند که مرگ وبی خانمانی وبی سرپرستی ریشه در حکومتهای استبدادی داشته باشد یا با نام عدس آزادی و دموکراسی ایجاد گردد ؟» «ضربه دربرابرضربه و چشم در برابر چشم دنیا را کور می‌سازد.» «من بنا به دلایل زیادی آماده مردن شده‌ام و نه برای کشتن.»
گاندی در اجرای اصول مورد نظر خودهرگز از مسیر منطق خارج نشد. در سال ۱۹۴۰ که حمله آلمان نازی به جزایر بریتانیایی اجتناب ناپذیر به نظر می‌رسید گاندی خطاب به مردم بریتانیا پیامی تحت عنوان عدم خشونت در جنگ و صلح چنین گفت :
«دوست دارم اسلحه را زمین بگذارید چرا که کمکی برای حفظ جان و انسانیت شما نمی‌کند. با سلاح برداشتن و وارد جنگ شدن هیتلر و موسولینی‌ها را دعوت می‌کنید تا وارد کشور شما شوند و داشته هایتان را به یغما ببرند. اگر این آقایان محترم تصمیم بگیرند کشورتان را اشغال نمایند آنها را پس می‌زنید. اگر شما را در بیطرفی خود رها نکردند آنگاه زن و مرد و کودک از خاک خود دفاع خواهید کرد واجازه نخواهید داد به اهداف خود برسند.»
حتی در ۱۹۴۶ به لوئیس فیشر حسب حال نویس گفت:[۱]
«یهودیان خود را به چاقوی قصاب سپرده‌اند آنان باید خود را از فراز صخره‌ها به دریا پرتاب کنند.»
اما گاندی می‌دانست که عدم توسل به خشونت مستلزم اعتقادی راسخ و شهامتی باورنکردنی است که البته می‌دانست در همگان وجود ندارد لذا سعی میکرد به همه تفهیم کند که لازم نیست همه دست از خشونت بردارند بویژه اگر خشونت در مقابل ترس باشد:
«گاندی نمی‌خواست ایجاد ترس از سلاح برداشتن یا ترس از احساس ناتوانی مقابله و مقاومت را درجنبش ساتیاگراها مشاهده کند. لذا در نوشته‌هایش آورده : قویا معتقدم هرجا بین خشونت وترس گرفتار شدیم باید خشونت را بپذیریم.» [۲] "درهر جلسه‌ای تاکید می‌کنم که تاراه بدون خشونت سبب تسلیم افراد صاحب قدرت درمقابل قدرتمند تر از خود نشود باید این راه را برگزید اما اگر با خشونت بتوانند مقابل این وضعیت بایستند وتنها راه احقاق حق خشونت باشد بی هیچ تاملی باید سلاح برداشت من هرگز نمی‌پسندم که افراد شجاع بخاطر رعایت اصل عدم خشونت دربرابر نفوذ نیروهای ترسوی بد شاه فان تسلیم شوند و از آنها بترسند که مبادا خشونت ایجاد گردد. شجاعت فقط در خوب تیر اندازی کردن خلاصه نمی‌شود بلکه جلوگیری از مرگ وآماده سینه سپر کردن دربرابر گلوله دشمن هر دو از ابعاد شجاعت هستند. [۳]
[ویرایش] گیاه خواری
گاندی در دوران کودکی گوشت خوردن را تجربه کرد. چرا که اولا فردی کنجکاو بود وثانیا دوست صمیمی وی شیخ مهتاب او را به خوردن گوشت ترغیب میکرد. ایده گیاهخواری ونخوردن گوشت ریشه‌های عمیقی در آداب و سنن هندوها وجائین‌ها درهند وسرزمین مادری هند یعنی گجرات دارد به طوریکه بسیاری از هندوها گوشت نمی‌خوردند وخام خوار بودند وخانواده گاندی هم مستثنی نبود. گاندی پیش از رفتن به لندن برای ادامه تحصیل به مادرش، پوتلی بایی، وعمویش، بچارجی سوامی، قول داد که در لندن لب به گوشت نزند الکل مصرف نکند ودرگیر بی بند وباری جنسی نشود. او به امساک خویش پایبند ماند وبجای تلاش برای تعیین نوع خوراک به ارائه فلسفه‌ای همت گماشت که در طول زندگی آنرا مبنای امور خود قرار دهد. وقتی به سن میانسالی رسید یک خام خوار تمام عیار بود. وی مقاله‌ای در این مورد نوشت که بخشهایی از آن در نشریه انجمن خام خواران لندن بنام گیاهخواری منتشر شد. دراین ایام افراد صاحب نظر زیادی به او الهام دادند وحتی با رئیس انجمن خام خواران لندن دکتر ژوسیا اولد فیلد دوست شد.
مهانداس جوان همچنین با مطالعه کتاب هنری استفن سالت با رهبر پیشگام گیاهخوری دیدار کرد وبا اوهمراه شد. گاندی زمان زیادی از حضور خود در لندن را صرف ترویج گیاهخواری کرد. از نظر وی تغذیه گیاهی نه تنها نیازهای بدن را تامین میکرد بلکه در مقایسه با مصرف گوشت مقرون به صرفه هم بود. کما اینکه امروزه نیز گوشت در مقایسه با میوه جات، حبوبات و سایر گیاهان گرانتر است. همچنین بسیاری از هندیهای وقت که با کمی درآمد دست به گریبان بودند خام خواری را نه یک سمت روحانی صرف بلکه یک رویه عملی و مناسب می‌انگاشتند. اودر مدتهای طولانی روزه می‌گرفت واز آن بعنوان یک ابزار مبارزاتی استفاده میکرد. با اعتصاب غذا آنقدر به مخالفان فشار می‌آورد تا خواسته‌های او را تامین کنند. درخود بیوگرافی وی اشاره کرده‌است. که خام خواری سرآغاز پای بندی جدی وی به آیین برهمایی بوده بدون کنترل جامعی برنوع خوراک، وی در گام برداشتن در مسیر آئین برهما به شکست می‌رسید.
[ویرایش] آیین برهما
گاندی در سن ۳۶ سالگی از روابط جنسی کلا دست کشید ودرحالیکه زن داشت از نزدیکی با وی امساک کرد. این ایده به شدت متاثر از فلسفه برهمایی و آیین روحی وعملی پاکسازی درونی بود که عمدتا نیز با پرهیز جنسی همراه بود. گاندی آیین برهمایی را ابزاری برای نزدیکی به خداوند وشرط اولیه خودشناسی می‌انگاشت درشرح حال او اشاره شد که اهتمام زیادی برای مبارزه با شهوات وغیرت داشته که مورد اخیر از غیرت به عروس دوران کودکی(کاستوربا ) دروی شکل گرفته بود. او امساک جنسی را یک الزام مشخص می‌انگاشت وآنرا ابزاری برای عشق ورزیدن ونه شهوت رانی می‌دانست. از دید گاندی آیین برهما به منزله کنترل حواس از طریق تفکر، کلام و عمل بود. [۴]
[ویرایش] ساده زیستی مجسمه ماهاتما گاندی در پارك میدان یونیون نیویورك مجسمه ماهاتما گاندی در پارك میدان یونیون نیویورك
گاندی مجدانه براین باور پافشاری میکرد که فردی که به جامعه خدمت می‌کند باید زندگی ساده‌ای داشته باشد واین ساده زیستی را درآیین برهمایی جاری می‌انگاشت. او با رد زندگی به شیوه غربی به روند ساده زیستی را در آفریقای جنوبی درپیش گرفت واز آن بعنوان تلاش برای رسیدن به نقطه صفر یاد میکرد وبدین ترتیب هم درهزینه‌های غیر ضروری صرفه جویی می‌نمود وهم ساده زیستی را دنبال می‌نمود. اوحتی لباسهایش را خودش می‌شست.[۵] در یک مورد او هدایایی را که به خاطر خدماتش به جامعه به وی اهدا شده بود، باز پس داد.[۶]
گاندی درهر هفته یک روز را روزه سکوت سپری میکرد. امتناع از حرف زدن رامایه آرامش درونی می‌انگاشت این آموزه را هم از آیین برهما واصل موناشافتی یعنی سکوت وآرامش داشت. در این ایام سکوت با نوشتن برروی کاغذ با دیگران ارتباط برقرار می‌ساخت. گاندی از سن ۳۷ سالگی به مدت سه سال و نیم از خواندن روزنامه‌ها خودداری نمود واظهار می‌داشت وضعیت نابهنجار جهان وامور جهانی آرامش درونی او را بهم می‌ریزد. او دربازگشت به هند واشتغال به شغل حقوقی از پوشش غربی دست برداشت اگر چه نشان از ثروت و موفقیت داشت. اولباسی برتن کرد که مورد قبول فقیرترین افراددرهند بود واز پارچه تولیدی داخل موسوم به خادی استفاده می‌نمود. گاندی وپیروانش پارچه لباسهایشان را از نخی که خود می‌رشتند تهیه می‌کردند ودیگران را نیز به این کار تشویق می‌نمودند. درحالی که اکثر کارگران هندی بیکار بودند لباسهای مورد نیازشان را از تولیدیهای صنعتی تحت تملک انگلیسی‌ها خریداری می‌نمودند.
گاندی معتقد بود چنانکه هندیها لباسهای خود را خودشان تهیه کنند ضربه اقتصادی سنگینی بر پیکره استعمارگران انگلیسی درهند وارد خواهند آورد. متعاقبا علامت چرخ نخ ریسی برروی پرچم کنگره ملی هند نقش بست. وی برای نشان دادن ساده زیستی درسراسر زندگی خود فقط یک دست هوتی می‌پوشید.
[ویرایش] ایمان گاندی سمریتی (خانه‌ای که گاندی 4 ماه پایانی زندگی خود را در آن گذراند اکنون به یک یادمان در دهلی نو مبدل شده‌است.) گاندی سمریتی (خانه‌ای که گاندی 4 ماه پایانی زندگی خود را در آن گذراند اکنون به یک یادمان در دهلی نو مبدل شده‌است.)
گاندی یک هندوبود و تمام عمر براین آیین استوار ماند وبسیاری از اصول خویش را از هندواقتباس نمود. بعنوان یک هندوی عامی معتقد بود همه ادیان برابرندودر برابر تلاش‌هایی که برای تغییر دین وی به عمل آمد مقاومت نشان داد او شدیدا به خدااعتقاد داشت و لذا به مطالعه تمام ادیان بزرگ اهتمام ورزید. درموردهندوئیسم چنین می‌گوید:
«تا آنجا که به من مربوط می‌شود هندوئیسم روح مرا ارضا می‌کند و وجود مراسیراب می‌نماید. هرگاه تردید وناامیدی درمن قوت می‌گیرد وهیچ پرتوامیدی را در افق پیش روی خودمشاهده نمی‌کنم به باگاواد جیتا رجوع می‌کنم وسطری از آن را پیدا می‌کنم که به من آرامش دهد. بلافاصله لبخند بر لبانم نقش می‌بندد و اندوه وغم را به فراموشی می‌سپارم. زندگی من مملو از تراژدی بود واگر تعالیم این کتاب نبود شاید خیلی زود از پا می‌افتادم.»
گاندی معتقد بود که اساس و شالوده هر دین را حقیقت وعشق تشکیل میدهد (محبت، عدم خشونت یا همان ترکیب حکم طلایی ) اوهرگونه تعصب کور وگم بودن رفتارهای نادرست درهر دین وآیینی را زیرسوال میبرد وبه طرز خستگی ناپذیری در پی اصلاح اجتماعی برمی آمد. برخی از اظهار نظرهای وی درمورد ادیان مختلف به شرح زیر مطرح شده‌اند :
«لذا اگر می‌توانستم مسیحیت را بپذیرم وآنرا بزرگترین و کاملترین دین قبول کنم قطعا هندوئیسم را آنطور که الان هستم قبول نمی‌داشتم. من اشکالات و نواقص هندو را می‌شناسم. اگر نجاست در هندو بوده قطعا به گوشت خام مربوط می‌شده نه گوشت پخته. نمی‌توانم سرمنشا اختلاف ادیان را درک کنم معنی اینکه چنین چیزی در قالب وداس یا کلام خدا مطرح می‌شود چیست؟ اگر چیزی از جانب خداوند الهام شود پس چرا در مورد قرآن و انجیل باید تردید کرد؟ دوستان مسیحی من سعی کردند مرا به مسیحیت سوق دهند و همین طور دوستان مسلمان من. عبداله شیت به شدت مرا به مطالعه اسلام ترغیب میکرد البته همیشه درمورد زیبایی دین اسلام حرفهایی برای گفتن داشت.» «به محض اینکه از مسیر اخلاق منحرف شویم دیگر شخصیت دینی نخواهیم داشت. در دین چیزی وجود ندارد که از چارچوب اخلاق خارج باشد. مثلا انسان نمی‌تواند دروغگو و بیرحم باشد ودرعین حال مدعی شود خدا را دردرون خویش احساس می‌کند.» «کلام محمد گنجینه عقل است، نه تنها برای مسلمانان بلکه برای کل بشریت.»
اوبعدها که با سوال آیا یک هندو بودی مواجه شد جواب داد :
«آری من یک هندو هستم. همچنین یک مسیحی یک مسلمان و یک بودایی و یهودی می‌باشم.»
گاندی برخلاف خود آنها که با یکدیگر درتضاد بودند دستورات این ادیان را همسو ویکسان می‌دانست. البته درمباحث مطروحه دو تفاوت بارز فلسفی بین دوگروه بزرگ هندی درآن عصر را شرح داده‌است. در۱۵ ژانویه ۱۹۳۴ زلزله مهیبی بیمار را لرزانید و خسارات وتلفات سنگینی برجای گذاشت. گاندی این حادثه‌ها را نتیجه گناه افراد رده بالای هندو می‌دانست چرا که معتقد بود خوراکی‌های غیر مجاز نجس را به معابدشان برده‌اند. گاندی به ترویج پرهیز از نجاست گوشت اهتمام زیادی داشت وافراد پای بند به این امساک را مردم کریشنا می‌نامید. اما تاگور با این موضع گاندی مخالف بود ومی گفت زمین لرزه تنها منشا طبیعی دارد و نه اخلاقی اما سوء رفتار درمعابد هندو را نیز نفی میکرد.
[ویرایش] منبع
* انگلیسی،نسخه: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mohandas_Karamchand_Gandhi&oldid=206294194 * [میراث مهاتما گاندی پس از شصت سال ] * ویکی‌پدیا:پروژهٔ مترجمان/ماهاتما گاندی
[ویرایش] پانویس‌ها
1. ↑ Trivia Hall of Fame — Mahatma Gandhi. Retrieved from the Wayback Machine, ۱۴ February ۲۰۰۴. 2. ↑ بوندورانت، ص ۲۸ 3. ↑ بوندورانت، ص ۱۳۹ 4. ↑ The Story of My Experiments with truth — An Autobiography, p. ۱۷۶. 5. ↑ The Story of My Experiments with truth — An Autobiography, p. ۱۷۷. 6. ↑ The Story of My Experiments with truth — An Autobiography, p. ۱۸۳.
[ویرایش] پیوند به بیرون ویکی‌گفتآورد مجموعه‌ای از نقل‌قول‌های مربوط به ماهاتما گاندی در ویکی‌گفتاورد موجود است.
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1893年4月, 一家印度公司派甘地到南非工作。他看到印度移民在南非的公民自由和政治权利在很大程度上被剥夺的现状，很是灰心。这些移民主要是契约佣工和个体商人。于是他开始抗议和游说，反对针对南非印度人的法律和种族歧视。有人因此批评他没有将抗议的对象扩展到针对全体非洲人的法律。在他在南非的早期，有一件事常被人提起。那就是他买了一张一等车厢的车票，拒绝换到三等车厢，被人从彼得马里茨堡火车中扔了出去。1903年6月，甘地组织了一场抗议运动针对“黑法令”（The Black Act)，这个法令强制所有在南非的亚洲人接受登记。1913年9月，他参加了一场抗议不按照天主教仪式结婚就无效的运动。
甘地的哲学和非暴力不合作（satya, ahimsa）的思想深受薄伽梵歌，印度教信仰以及耆那教的影响。非暴力（ahimsa)的概念在印度的宗教中长久以来就有。印度教，佛教，耆那教中对于此都有重述。甘地在他的自传“我的对于真理的实践经历”（The Story of my Experiments with Truth）揭示了他的哲学和生活方式。
关于甘地最出名的艺术作品应该是电影《甘地》。该片的导演是理查德·阿滕伯勒（Richard Attenborough）。主演是本·金斯利（Ben Kingsley），他的一半血统也是来自古吉拉特邦。电影“The Making of the Mahatma”展示的是他在南非的二十一年。主演是Rajat Kapur。
尽管甘地在1937年到1948年之间获得过五次提名，但他始终没有获得过诺贝尔和平奖。多年以后，诺贝尔委员会对此公开表达过他们的遗憾。1948年甘地去世那年，诺贝尔和平奖并未颁发，原因是没有适合的、活着的候选人；在1989年当达赖喇嘛获得诺贝尔和平奖时，委员会主席说“此奖之一部分纪念莫罕达斯·甘地”（in part a tribute to the memory of Mahatma Gandhi）。诺贝尔电子博物馆有一篇文章讨论此事，详见——Mahatma Gandhi, the Missing Laureate
甘地死后，他的事迹，一直受到广泛的评论。例如，作为大英帝国的例子，丘吉尔一次说：“见到甘地先生，……是令人作呕，他曾是一个妨害治安的Middle Temple出来的律师。现在在东方作出苦行僧的样子，半裸的在总督府前游行，却出名了”。与此相反，爱因斯坦这样评论甘地：“后世的子孙也许很难相信，历史上竟走过这样一副血肉之躯。”（Generations to come will scarcely believe that such a one as this walked the earth in flesh and blood.）他又说：“我认为甘地的观点是我们这个时期所有政治家中最高明的。我们应该朝着他的精神方向努力：不是通过暴力达到我们的目的，而是不同你认为邪恶的势力结盟。”1999年《时代》杂志将其评选为20世纪风云人物第一名是爱因斯坦，第二位世纪风云人物是罗斯福总统，印度的甘地列第三位，他是以个人之力抗拒专制、拯救民权和个人自由的象征。
* Bondurant, Joan V.（1988）．Conquest of Violence: The Gandhian Philosophy of Conflict．Princeton UP．ISBN 0-691-02281-X． * Chernus, Ira. American Nonviolence: The History of an Idea, chapter 7. ISBN 1-57075-547-7 * Chadha, Yogesh. Gandhi: A Life. ISBN 0-471-35062-1 * Dutta, Krishna and Andrew Robinson．Rabindranath Tagore: An Anthology，1997，London：Picador/Macmillan．ISBN 0-330-34962-7． * Fischer, Louis. The Essential Gandhi: An Anthology of His Writings on His Life, Work, and Ideas. ISBN 1-4000-3050-1 * Gandhi, M.K. "Zionism and Antisemitism." The Gandhi Reader: A Sourcebook of His Life and Writings. Homer Jack (ed.) Grove Press, New York: 1956:317-322. * ---"Questions on the Jews." The Gandhi Reader: A Sourcebook of His Life and Writings. Homer Jack (ed.) Grove Press, New York: 1956:322-3. * --- "Reply to Jewish Friends." The Gandhi Reader: A Sourcebook of His Life and Writings. Homer Jack (ed.) Grove Press, New York: 1956:323-4. * --- "Jews and Palestine." The Gandhi Reader: A Sourcebook of His Life and Writings. Homer Jack (ed.) Grove Press, New York: 1956:324-6. * Gandhi, M.K. An Autobiography: The Story of My Experiments With Truth (available at wikisource) [3] (1929) ISBN 0-8070-5909-9 * Gandhi, Rajmohan（1990）．Patel: A Life．Navajivan Publishing House．ISBN 81-7229-138-8． * Rune, Peter. Gandhi: A Photo biography. ISBN 0-7148-9279-3 * Sharp, Gene. Gandhi as a Political Strategist, with Essays on Ethics and Politics. Boston: Extending Horizon Books, 1979. * Sofri, Gianni. Gandhi and India: A Century in Focus. (1995) ISBN 1-900624-12-5
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Pregnancy From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search This article is about pregnancy in female humans. For pregnancy in other animals, see Gestation. For pregnancy in males, see Male pregnancy. A pregnant woman near the end of her term A pregnant woman near the end of her term
Pregnancy (latin graviditas) is the carrying of one or more offspring, known as a fetus or embryo, inside the uterus of a female human. In a pregnancy, there can be multiple gestations, as in the case of twins or triplets. Human pregnancy is the most studied of all mammalian pregnancies. Obstetrics is the medical field that studies and treats pregnant patients.
Childbirth usually occurs about 38 weeks from fertilization, i.e., approximately 40 weeks from the start of the last menstruation in humans. Thus, pregnancy lasts about nine months, although the exact definition of the English word “pregnancy” is a subject of controversy. Contents [hide]
* 1 Terminology * 2 Characteristics o 2.1 Duration * 3 Diagnosis * 4 Physiology o 4.1 First trimester o 4.2 Second trimester o 4.3 Third trimester o 4.4 Prenatal development and sonograph images * 5 Physiological changes in pregnancy o 5.1 Hormonal changes o 5.2 Physical changes o 5.3 Cardiovascular changes o 5.4 Respiratory changes o 5.5 Metabolic changes o 5.6 Renal changes * 6 Management o 6.1 Nutrition o 6.2 Weight gain o 6.3 Immunological tolerance o 6.4 Sexuality during pregnancy o 6.5 Abortion * 7 Progression o 7.1 Complaints o 7.2 Childbirth o 7.3 Postnatal period * 8 Context * 9 See also * 10 References
[edit] Terminology
One scientific term for the state of pregnancy is gravid, and a pregnant female is sometimes referred to as a gravida.[1] Both words are rarely used in common speech. Similarly, the term "parity" (abbreviated as "para") is used for the number of previous successful live births. Medically, a woman who has is not currently pregnant or who has never been pregnant is referred to as a "nulligravida", and in subsequent pregnancies as "multigravida" or "multiparous".[2] Hence during a second pregnancy a woman would be described as "gravida 2, para 1" and upon delivery as "gravida 2, para 2". Incomplete pregnancies of abortions, miscarriages or stillbirths account for parity values being less than the gravida number, whereas a multiple birth will increase the parity value. Women who have never carried a pregnancy achieving more than 20 weeks of gestation age are referred to as "nulliparous".[3]
The term embryo is used to describe the developing offspring during the first eight weeks following conception, and the term foetus is used from about two months of development until birth.[4][5]
In many societies' medical and legal definitions, human pregnancy is somewhat arbitrarily divided into three trimester periods, as a means to simplify reference to the different stages of prenatal development. The first trimester carries the highest risk of miscarriage (natural death of embryo or foetus). During the second trimester, the development of the foetus can be more easily monitored and diagnosed. The beginning of the third trimester often approximates the point of viability, or the ability of the foetus to survive, with or without medical help, outside of the uterus.[6]
[edit] Characteristics
Pregnancy occurs as the result of the female gamete or oocyte (egg) being penetrated by the male gamete spermatozoon in a process referred to, in medicine, as "fertilization", or more commonly known as "conception". The fusion of male and female gametes usually occurs through the act of sexual intercourse. However, the advent of artificial insemination has also made achieving pregnancy possible in such cases where sexual intercourse is not potentially fertile (through choice or male/female infertility).
A number of medical signs are associated with pregnancy.[7][8] These signs typically appear, if at all, within the first few weeks after conception. Although not all of these signs are universally present, nor are all of them diagnostic by themselves, taken together they make a presumptive diagnosis of pregnancy. These signs include the presence of human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) in the blood and urine, missed menstrual period, implantation bleeding that occurs at implantation of the embryo in the uterus during the third or fourth week after last menstrual period, increased basal body temperature sustained for over two weeks after ovulation, Chadwick's sign (darkening of the cervix, vagina, and vulva), Goodell's sign (softening of the vaginal portion of the cervix), Hegar's sign (softening of the uterus isthmus), and pigmentation of linea alba - Linea nigra, (darkening of the skin in a midline of the abdomen, caused by hyperpigmentation resulting from hormonal changes; it usually appears around the middle of pregnancy).[7][8]
[edit] Duration
Though pregnancy begins at conception, it is more convenient to date from the first day of a woman's last menstrual period (acronym = LMP), or from the date of conception (if known). Starting from one of these dates, the expected date of delivery (acronym = EDD) can be calculated. Counting from the LMP, pregnancy usually lasts between 37 and 42 weeks, with the EDD at 40 weeks,[9] 38 weeks after conception. 40 weeks is a little more than nine months and six days, which forms the basis of Naegele's rule for estimating date of delivery.
Pregnancy is considered 'at term' when gestation attains 37 complete weeks but is less than 42 (between 259 and 294 days since LMP). Events before completion of 37 weeks (259 days) are considered pre-term; from week 42 (294 days) events are considered post-term.[10] When a pregnancy exceeds 42 weeks (294 days), the risk of complications for mother and fetus increases significantly.[9][11] As such, obstetricians usually prefer to induce labour, in an uncomplicated pregnancy, at some stage between 41 and 42 weeks.[12][13]
Recent medical literature prefers the terminology pre-term and post-term to premature and post-mature. Pre-term and post-term are unambiguously defined as above, whereas premature and postmature have historical meaning and relate more to the infant's size and state of development rather than to the stage of pregnancy.[14][15]
Though these are the averages, the actual length of pregnancy depends on various factors. For example, the first pregnancy tends to last longer than subsequent pregnancies. Fewer than 10% of births occur on the due date; 50% of births are within a week of the due date, and almost 90% within two weeks.[16]
Accurate dating of pregnancy is important, because it is used in calculating the results of various prenatal tests (for example, in the triple test). A decision may be made to induce labour if a fetus is perceived to be overdue. Due dates are only a rough estimate, and the process of accurately dating a pregnancy using the LMP method is complicated by the fact that not all women have 28 day menstrual cycles, nor ovulate on the 14th day following their last menstrual period.
[edit] Diagnosis
Main article: Obstetrics
The beginning of pregnancy may be detected in a number of ways, including various pregnancy tests which detect hormones generated by the newly-formed placenta. Clinical blood and urine tests can detect pregnancy soon after implantation, which is as early as 6-8 days after fertilization. Home pregnancy tests are personal urine tests, which normally cannot detect a pregnancy until at least 12-15 days after fertilization. Both clinical and home tests can only detect the state of pregnancy, and cannot detect its age.
In the post-implantation phase, the blastocyst secretes a hormone named human chorionic gonadotropin which in turn, stimulates the corpus luteum in the woman's ovary to continue producing progesterone. This acts to maintain the lining of the uterus so that the embryo will continue to be nourished. The glands in the lining of the uterus will swell in response to the blastocyst, and capillaries will be stimulated to grow in that region. This allows the blastocyst to receive vital nutrients from the woman.
An early sonograph can determine the age of the pregnancy fairly accurately. In practice, doctors typically express the age of a pregnancy (i.e. an "age" for an embryo) in terms of "menstrual date" based on the first day of a woman's last menstrual period, as the woman reports it. Unless a woman's recent sexual activity has been limited, or she has been charting her cycles, or the conception is as the result of some types of fertility treatment (such as IUI or IVF) the exact date of fertilization is unknown. Absent symptoms such as morning sickness, often the only visible sign of a pregnancy is an interruption of her normal monthly menstruation cycle, (i.e. a "late period"). Hence, the "menstrual date" is simply a common educated estimate for the age of a fetus, which is an average of two weeks later than the first day of the woman's last menstrual period. The term "conception date" may sometimes be used when that date is more certain, though even medical professionals can be imprecise with their use of the two distinct terms. The due date can be calculated by using Naegele's rule. The expected date of delivery may also be calculated from sonogram measurement of the fetus. This method is slightly more accurate than methods based on LMP.[17] The beginning of labour, which is variously called confinement or childbed, begins on the day predicted by LMP 3.6% of the time and on the day predicted by sonography 4.3% of the time.[18]
Diagnostic criteria are: Women who have menstrual cycles and are sexually active, a period delayed by a few days or weeks is suggestive of pregnancy; elevated B-hcG to around 100,000 mIU/mL by 10 weeks of gestation.
[edit] Physiology
The term trimester redirects here. For the term trimester used in academic settings, see Academic term
Pregnancy is typically broken into three periods, or trimesters, each of about three months. While there are no hard and fast rules, these distinctions are useful in describing the changes that take place over time.
[edit] First trimester Comparison of growth of the abdomen between 26 weeks and 40 weeks gestation. Comparison of growth of the abdomen between 26 weeks and 40 weeks gestation.
Traditionally, doctors have measured pregnancy from a number of convenient points, including the day of last menstruation, ovulation, fertilization, implantation and chemical detection. In medicine, pregnancy is often defined as beginning when the developing embryo becomes implanted into the endometrial lining of a woman's uterus. In some cases where complications may have arisen, the fertilized egg might implant itself in the fallopian tubes or the cervix, causing an ectopic pregnancy. Most pregnant women do not have any specific signs or symptoms of implantation, although it is not uncommon to experience light bleeding at implantation. Some women will also experience cramping during their first trimester. This is usually of no concern unless there is spotting or bleeding as well. The outer layers of the embryo grow and form a placenta, for the purpose of receiving essential nutrients through the uterine wall, or endometrium. The umbilical cord in a newborn child consists of the remnants of the connection to the placenta. The developing embryo undergoes tremendous growth and changes during the process of foetal development.
Morning sickness can occur in about seventy percent of all pregnant women and typically improves after the first trimester.[19] Most miscarriages occur during this period. A pregnant woman at 26 weeks A pregnant woman at 26 weeks
[edit] Second trimester
Months 4 through 6 of the pregnancy are called the second trimester. Most women feel more energized in this period, and begin to seriously put on weight as the symptoms of morning sickness subside and eventually fade away. Although the fetus begins moving and takes a recognizable human shape during the first trimester, it is not until the second trimester that movement of the fetus, often referred to as "quickening", can be felt. This typically happens by the fourth month. The placenta is now fully functioning and the fetus is making insulin and urinating. The teeth are now formed inside the fetus's gums and the reproductive organs can be recognized, and can distinguish the fetus as male or female.
[edit] Third trimester
Final weight gain takes place, and the fetus begins to move regularly. The woman's navel will sometimes become convex, "popping" out, due to her expanding abdomen. This period of her pregnancy can be uncomfortable, causing symptoms like weak bladder control and back-ache. Movement of the fetus becomes stronger and more frequent and via improved brain, eye, and muscle function the fetus is prepared for ex utero viability. The woman can feel the fetus "rolling" and it may cause pain or discomfort when it is near the woman's ribs and spine.
It is during this time that a baby born prematurely may survive. The use of modern medical intensive care technology has greatly increased the probability of premature babies surviving, and has pushed back the boundary of viability to much earlier dates than would be possible without assistance.[20] In spite of these developments, premature birth remains a major threat to the fetus, and may result in ill-health in later life, even if the baby survives.
[edit] Prenatal development and sonograph images
See also: Prenatal development
Prenatal development is divided into two primary biological stages. The first is the embryonic stage, which lasts for about two months. At this point, the fetal stage begins. At the beginning of the foetal stage, the risk of miscarriage decreases sharply,[21] all major structures including hands, feet, head, brain, and other organs are present, and they continue to grow and develop. When the fetal stage commences, a fetus is typically about 30 mm (1.2 inches) in length, and the heart can be seen beating via sonograph; the fetus bends the head, and also makes general movements and startles that involve the whole body.[22] Brain stem activity has been detected as early as 54 days after conception,[23] and the first measurable signs of EEG activity occur in the 12th week.[24] Some fingerprint formation occurs from the beginning of the fetal stage.[25]
Embryo at 6 weeks after fertilization[26]
Fetus at 8 weeks after fertilization[27]
Fetus at 18 weeks after fertilization[28]
Fetus at 38 weeks after fertilization[29]
Relative size in 1st Month (simplified illustration)
Relative size in 3rd Month (simplified illustration)
Relative size in 5th Month (simplified illustration)
Relative size in 9th Month (simplified illustration)
One way to observe prenatal development is via ultrasound images. Modern 3D ultrasound images provide greater detail for prenatal diagnosis than the older 2D ultrasound technology.[30] Whilst 3D is popular with parents desiring a prenatal photograph as a keepsake,[31] both 2D and 3D are discouraged by the FDA for non-medical use,[32] but there are no definitive studies linking ultrasound to any adverse medical effects.[33] The following 3D ultrasound images were taken at different stages of pregnancy:
3-inch fetus (about 14 weeks gestational age)
Fetus at 17 weeks
Fetus at 20 weeks
[edit] Physiological changes in pregnancy
The body must change its physiological and homeostatic mechanisms in pregnancy to ensure the fetus is provided for. Increases in blood sugar, breathing and cardiac output are all required.
[edit] Hormonal changes
Levels of progesterone and oestrogens rise continually throughout pregnancy, suppressing the hypothalamic axis and subsequently the menstrual cycle. The mother and the placenta also produces many hormones.
Prolactin levels increase due to maternal Pituitary gland enlargement by 50%. This mediates a change in the structure of the Mammary gland from ductal to lobular-alveolar. Parathyroid hormone is increased due to increases of calcium uptake in the gut and reabsorption by the kidney. Adrenal hormones such as cortisol and aldosterone also increase.
Placental lactogen is produced by the placenta and stimulates lipolysis and fatty acid metabolism by the mother, conserving blood glucose for use by the fetus. It also decreases maternal tissue sensitivity to insulin, resulting in gestational diabetes.
[edit] Physical changes
12-15kgs (26-33lbs) are gained during pregnancy due to fat deposition, growth of the reproductive organs and fetal tissues.
[edit] Cardiovascular changes
Blood volume increases by 40% in the first two trimesters. This is due to an increase in plasma volume through increased aldosterone. Progesterone may also interact with the aldosterone receptor, thus leading to increased levels. Red blood cell numbers increase due to increased erythropoietin levels.
Cardiac function is also modified, with increase heart rate and increased stroke volume. A decrease in vagal tone and increase in sympathetic tone is the cause. Blood volume increases act to increase stroke volume of the heart via Starling's law. After pregnancy the change in stroke volume is not reversed. Cardiac output rises from 4 to 7 litres in the 2nd trimester
Blood pressure also fluctuates. In the first trimester it falls. Initially this is due to decreased sensitivity to angiotensin and vasodilation provoked by increased blood volume. Later however, it is caused by decreased resistance to the growing uteroplacental bed.
[edit] Respiratory changes
Decreased functional residual capacity is seen, typically falling from 1.7 to 1.35 litres, due to the compression of the diaphragm by the uterus. Tidal volume increases, from 0.45 to 0.65 litres, giving an increase in pulmonary ventilation. This is necessary to meet the increased oxygen requirement of the body, which reaches 50ml/min - 20ml of which goes to reproductive tissues.
Progesterone may act centrally on chemoreceptors to reset the set point to a lower partial pressure of carbon dioxide. This maintains an increased respiration rate even at a decreased level of carbon dioxide.
[edit] Metabolic changes
An increased requirement for nutrients is given by fetal growth and fat deposition. Changes are caused by steroid hormones, lactogen and cortisol.
Maternal insulin resistance can lead to gestational diabetes. Increase liver metabolism is also seen, with increased gluconeogenesis to increase maternal glucose levels.
[edit] Renal changes
Renal plasma flow increases, as does aldosterone and erthropoietin production as discussed. The tubular maximum for glucose is reduced, which may precipitate gestational diabetes.
[edit] Management
Prenatal medical care is of recognized value throughout the developed world. Periconceptional Folic acid supplementation is the only type of supplementation of proven efficacy.
[edit] Nutrition
Main article: Nutrition and pregnancy
A balanced, nutritious diet is an important aspect of a healthy pregnancy. If the woman is healthy, balancing carbohydrates, fat, and proteins, and eating a variety of fruits and vegetables usually ensure good nutrition. Those whose diets are affected by health issues, religious requirements, or ethical beliefs may choose to consult a health professional for specific advice.
Adequate periconceptional folic acid (also called folate or Vitamin B9) intake has been proven to limit fetal neural tube defects, preventing spina bifida, a very serious birth defect. The neural tube develops during the first 28 days of pregnancy and this explains the necessity to guarantee adequate periconceptional folate intake.[34][35] Folates (from folia, leaf) are abundant in spinach (fresh, frozen or canned), and are also found in green vegetables, salads, melon, hummus, and eggs. In the United States and Canada, most wheat products (flour, noodles) are fortified with folic acid.[36]
Several micronutrients are important for the health of the developing fetus, especially in areas of the world where insufficient nutrition is prevalent.[37] In developed areas, such as Western Europe and the United States, certain nutrients such as Vitamin D and calcium, required for bone development, may require supplementation.[38][39][40]
There is some evidence that long-chain omega-3 (n-3) fatty acids have an effect on the developing fetus, but further research is required.[41] At this time, supplementing the diet with foods rich in these fatty acids is not recommended, but is not harmful.[42]
Dangerous bacteria or parasites may contaminate foods, particularly listeria and toxoplasma, toxoplasmosis agent. Careful washing of fruits and raw vegetables may remove these pathogens, as may thoroughly cooking leftovers, meat, or processed meat. Soft cheeses may contain listeria, if milk is raw the risk may increase. Cat feces pose a particular risk of toxoplasmosis. Pregnant women are also more prone to catching salmonella infection from eggs and poultry, which should be thoroughly cooked. Practicing good hygiene in the kitchen can reduce these risks.[43]
[edit] Weight gain
Caloric intake must be increased, to ensure proper development of the fetus. The amount of weight gained during pregnancy varies between women. The National Health Service recommends that overall weight gain during the 9 month period for women who start pregnancy with normal weight be 10 to 12 kilograms (22–26 lb).[44] During pregnancy, insufficient weight gain can compromise the health of the fetus. Women with fears of weight gain or with eating disorders may choose to work with a health professional, to ensure that pregnancy does not trigger disordered eating. Likewise, excessive weight gain can pose risks to the woman and the fetus. Women who are prone to being overweight may choose to plan a healthy diet and exercise plan to help moderate the amount of weight gained.
[edit] Immunological tolerance
Main article: Pre-eclampsia
Research on the immunological basis for pre-eclampsia has indicated that continued exposure to a partner's semen has a strong protective effect against pre-eclampsia, largely due to the absorption of several immune modulating factors present in seminal fluid.[45] Studies also showed that long periods of sexual cohabitation with the same partner fathering a woman's child significantly decreased her chances of suffering pre-eclampsia.[46] Several other studies have since investigated the strongly decreased incidence of pre-eclampsia in women who had received blood transfusions from their partner, those with long, preceding histories of sex without barrier contraceptives, and in women who had been regularly performing oral sex,[47] with one study concluding that "induction of allogeneic tolerance to the paternal HLA molecules of the fetus may be crucial. Data collected strongly suggests that exposure, and especially oral exposure to soluble HLA from semen can lead to transplantation tolerance."[47]
Other studies have investigated the roles of semen in the female reproductive tracts of mice, showing that "insemination elicits inflammatory changes in female reproductive tissues,"[48] concluding that the changes "likely lead to immunological priming to paternal antigens or influence pregnancy outcomes." A similar series of studies confirmed the importance of immune modulation in female mice through the absorption of specific immune factors in semen, including TGF-Beta, lack of which is also being investigated as a cause of miscarriage in women and infertility in men.
According to the theory, pre-eclampsia is frequently caused by a failure of the mother's immune system to accept the fetus and placenta, which both contain "foreign" proteins from paternal genes. Regular exposure to the father's semen causes her immune system to develop tolerance to the paternal antigens, a process which is significantly supported by as many as 93 currently identified immune regulating factors in seminal fluid.[49][50] Having already noted the importance of a woman's immunological tolerance to her baby's paternal genes, several Dutch reproductive biologists decided to take their research a step further. Consistent with the fact that human immune systems tolerate things better when they enter the body via the mouth, the Dutch researchers conducted a series of studies that confirmed a surprisingly strong correlation between a diminished incidence of pre-eclampsia and a woman's practice of oral sex, and noted that the protective effects were strongest if she swallowed her partner's semen.[51] The researchers concluded that while any exposure to a partner's semen during sexual activity appears to decrease a woman's chances for the various immunological disorders that can occur during pregnancy, immunological tolerance could be most quickly established through oral introduction and gastrointestinal absorption of semen.[51] Recognizing that some of the studies potentially included the presence of confounding factors, such as the likelihood that women who regularly perform oral sex and swallow semen[citation needed] engage in more frequent vaginal intercourse, the researchers also noted that, either way, the data still overwhelmingly supports the main theory behind all their studies--that repeated exposure to semen establishes the maternal immunological tolerance necessary for a safe and successful pregnancy.[citation needed]
[edit] Sexuality during pregnancy
Most pregnant women can enjoy sexual intercourse throughout gravidity. Most research suggests that, during pregnancy, both sexual desire and frequency of sexual relations decrease.[52][53] In context of this overall decrease in desire, some studies indicate a second-trimester increase, preceding a decrease.[54] However, these decreases are not universal: a significant number of women report greater sexual satisfaction throughout their pregnancies.[55]
Sex during pregnancy is a low-risk behaviour except when the physician advises that sexual intercourse be avoided, which may, in some pregnancies, lead to serious pregnancy complications or health issues such as a high-risk for premature labour or a ruptured uterus. Such a decision may be based upon a history of difficulties in a previous childbirth.
Some psychological research studies in the 1980s and '90s contend that it is useful for pregnant women to continue to have sexual activity, specifically noting that overall sexual satisfaction was correlated with feeling happy about being pregnant, feeling more attractive in late pregnancy than before pregnancy and experiencing orgasm.[54] Sexual activity has also been suggested as a way to prepare for induced labour; some believe the natural prostaglandin content of seminal liquid can favour the maturation process of the cervix making it more flexible, allowing for easier and faster dilation and effacement of the cervix. However, the efficacy of using sexual intercourse as an induction agent "remains uncertain".[56]
During pregnancy, the baby is protected from penetrative thrusting by the amniotic fluid in the womb and by the woman's abdomen.[57]
[edit] Abortion
Main article: Abortion
An abortion is the removal or expulsion of an embryo or fetus from the uterus, resulting in or caused by its death. This can occur spontaneously or accidentally as with a miscarriage, or be artificially induced by medical, surgical or other means.
[edit] Progression
[edit] Complaints
See also: Complications of pregnancy
The following are complaints that may occur during pregnancy:
* Back pain. A particularly common complaint in the third trimester when the patient's center of gravity has shifted. * Constipation. A complaint that is caused by decreased bowel motility secondary to elevated progesterone (normal in pregnancy), which can lead to greater absorption of water. * Braxton Hicks contractions. Occasional, irregular, and often painless contractions that occur several times per day. * Edema. Common complaint in advancing pregnancy. Caused by compression of the inferior vena cava (IVC) and pelvic veins by the uterus leads to increased hydrostatic pressure in lower extremities. * Regurgitation, heartburn and nausea. Common complaints that may be caused by Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease (GERD); this is determined by relaxation of the lower esophageal sphincter (LES) and increased transit time in the stomach (normal in pregnancy) * Haemorrhoids. Complaint that is often noted in advancing pregnancy. Caused by increased venous stasis and IVC compression leading to congestion in venous system along with increased abdominal pressure secondary to the pregnant space-occupying uterus and constipation. * Pelvic girdle pain. A common complaint is pain, instability or dysfunction of the symphysis pubis and/or sacroiliac joints resulting from either excess strain or injury (such as Diastasis symphysis pubis) during the course of the pregnancy or birthing process. * Increased urinary frequency. A common complaint referred by the gravida that is caused by increased intravascular volume, elevated GFR (glomerular filtration rate), and compression of the bladder by the expanding uterus. * Varicose veins. Common complaint caused by relaxation of the venous smooth muscle and increased intravascular pressure.
[edit] Childbirth
Main article: Childbirth
Childbirth is the process whereby an infant is born. It is considered by many to be the beginning of a person's life, and age is defined relative to this event in most cultures.
A woman is considered to be in labour when she begins experiencing regular uterine contractions, accompanied by changes of her cervix — primarily effacement and dilation. While childbirth is widely experienced as painful, some women do report painless labours, while others find that concentrating on the birth helps to quicken labour and lessen the sensations. Most births are successful vaginal births, but sometimes complications arise and a woman may undergo a caesarean section.
During the time immediately after birth, both the mother and the baby are hormonally cued to bond, the mother through the release of oxytocin, a hormone also released during breastfeeding.
[edit] Postnatal period
Main article: Postnatal
[edit] Context
There are fine distinctions between the concepts of fertilization and the actual state of pregnancy, which starts with implantation. In a normal pregnancy, the fertilization of the egg usually will have occurred in the Fallopian tubes or in the uterus. (Often, an egg may become fertilized yet fail to become implanted in the uterus.) If the pregnancy is the result of in-vitro fertilization, the fertilization will have occurred in a Petri dish, after which pregnancy begins when one or more zygotes implant after being transferred by a physician into the woman's uterus.
In the context of political debates regarding a proper definition of life, the terminology of pregnancy can be confusing. The medically and politically neutral term which remains is simply "pregnancy," though this can be problematic as it only refers indirectly to the embryo or fetus. De Crespigny observes that doctors' language has a powerful influence over the way patients think, and thus proposes that the best interests of patients are served by using language that both supports patient autonomy and is neutral.[58]
[edit] See also
* Abortion * Anticoagulation in pregnancy * Birth control * Egg donation * Fertility * Fetal alcohol syndrome
* Pregnancy over age 50 * Pregnant patients' rights * Prenatal care * Simulated pregnancy * Teenage pregnancy
[edit] References
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PMID 17469450. 31. ^ Sheiner E, Hackmon R, Shoham-Vardi I, et al (2007). "A comparison between acoustic output indices in 2D and 3D/4D ultrasound in obstetrics". Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol 29 (3): 326–8. doi:10.1002/uog.3933. PMID 17265534. 32. ^ Rados C (January-February 2004). "FDA Cautions Against Ultrasound 'Keepsake' Images". FDA Consumer Magazine. 33. ^ Kempley R (2003-08-09). "The Grin Before They Bear It; Peek-a-Boo: Prenatal Portraits for the Ultrasound Set", Washington Post. 34. ^ Klusmann A, Heinrich B, Stöpler H, Gärtner J, Mayatepek E, Von Kries R (2005). "A decreasing rate of neural tube defects following the recommendations for periconceptional folic acid supplementation". Acta Paediatr. 94 (11): 1538–42. doi:10.1080/08035250500340396. PMID 16303691. Retrieved on 2008-01-20. 35. ^ Stevenson RE, Allen WP, Pai GS, Best R, Seaver LH, Dean J, Thompson S (2000). "Decline in prevalence of neural tube defects in a high-risk region of the United States". Pediatrics 106 (4): 677–83. doi:10.1542/peds.106.4.677. PMID 11015508. 36. ^ "Use of supplements containing folic acid among women of childbearing age--United States, 2007" (2008). MMWR Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep. 57 (1): 5–8. PMID 18185493. 37. ^ Haider BA, Bhutta ZA (2006). "Multiple-micronutrient supplementation for women during pregnancy". Cochrane Database Syst Rev (4): CD004905. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD004905.pub2. PMID 17054223. 38. ^ Theobald HE (2007). "Eating for pregnancy and breast-feeding". J Fam Health Care 17 (2): 45–9. PMID 17476978. 39. ^ Basile LA, Taylor SN, Wagner CL, Quinones L, Hollis BW (2007). "Neonatal vitamin D status at birth at latitude 32 degrees 72': evidence of deficiency". J Perinatol 27 (9): 568–71. doi:10.1038/sj.jp.7211796. PMID 17625571. 40. ^ Kuoppala T, Tuimala R, Parviainen M, Koskinen T, Ala-Houhala M (1986). "Serum levels of vitamin D metabolites, calcium, phosphorus, magnesium and alkaline phosphatase in Finnish women throughout pregnancy and in cord serum at delivery". Hum Nutr Clin Nutr 40 (4): 287–93. PMID 3488981. 41. ^ Hösli I, Zanetti-Daellenbach R, Holzgreve W, Lapaire O (2007). "Role of omega 3-fatty acids and multivitamins in gestation" (abstract). J Perinat Med 35 Suppl 1: S19–24. doi:10.1515/JPM.2007.032. PMID 17302536. Retrieved on 2008-01-20. 42. ^ Dubnov-Raz G, Finkelstein Y, Koren G (2007). "Omega-3 fatty acid supplementation during pregnancy: for mother, baby, or neither?". Can Fam Physician 53 (5): 817–8. PMID 17872742. Retrieved on 2008-01-20. 43. ^ Tarlow MJ (Aug 1994). "Epidemiology of neonatal infections". J Antimicrob Chemother 34 (Suppl A): 43–52. doi:10.1093/jac/34.1.43. PMID 7844073. 44. ^ How much weight will I put on during my pregnancy? 45. ^ Sarah Robertson. "Research Goals". 46. ^ Einarsson, Jon I. MD; Sangi-Haghpeykar, Haleh PhD; Gardner, Michael O. MD, MPH (2003). "Sperm exposure and development of preeclampsia". Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology 188 (5): 1241–1243. doi:10.1067/mob.2003.401. 47. ^ a b Koelman CA, Coumans AB, Nijman HW, Doxiadis II, Dekker GA, Claas FH (2000). "Correlation between oral sex and a low incidence of preeclampsia: a role for soluble HLA in seminal fluid?". J. Reprod. Immunol. 46 (2): 155–66. doi:10.1016/S0165-0378(99)00062-5. PMID 10706945. 48. ^ Martina Johansson, John J Bromfield, Melinda J Jasper, and Sarah A Robertson (2004). "Semen activates the female immune response during early pregnancy in mice". Journal of Immunology 112 (2): 290–300. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2567.2004.01876.x. 49. ^ Burne, Jerome (2006-01-30). "Give Sperm a Fighting Chance", The Times. Retrieved on 2007-11-16. 50. ^ "Sex Primes Women for Sperm", BBC News (2002-02-06). Retrieved on 2007-11-19. 51. ^ a b Fox, Douglas (2002-02-09). "Gentle Persuasion", The New Scientist. Retrieved on 2007-06-17. 52. ^ M.P. Bermudez; A.I. Sanchez, G. Buela-Casal (2001). "Influence of the Gestation Period on Sexual Desire". Psychology in Spain 5 (1): 14–16. 53. ^ Wing Yee Fok; Louis Yik-Si Chan, Pong Mo Yuen (10 2005). "Sexual behavior and activity in Chinese pregnant women". Acta Obstetricia et Gynecologica Scandinavica 84 (10): 934–938. doi:10.1111/j.0001-6349.2005.00743.x. PMID 16167907. 54. ^ a b Reamy K; White SE, Daniell WC, Le Vine ES (June 1982). "Sexuality and pregnancy. A prospective study". J Reprod Med. 27 (6): 321–7. PMID 7120209. 55. ^ Khamis MA; Mustafa MF, Mohamed SN, Toson MM (2007). "Influence of gestational period on sexual behavior". J Egypt Public Health Assoc. 2007 82 (1-2): 65–90. PMID 18217325. 56. ^ Methods for Cervical Ripening and Induction of Labor - May 15, 2003 - American Family Physician 57. ^ The Joy of Sex During Pregnancy - March of Dimes 58. ^ de Crespigny L. (Mar 2003). "Words matter: nomenclature and communication in perinatal medicine". Clin Perinatol 30 (1): 17–25. doi:10.1016/S0095-5108(02)00088-X. PMID 12696783.
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Circumcision From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search The neutrality of this article's title and/or subject matter is disputed. This is a dispute over the neutrality of viewpoints implied by the title, or the subject matter within its scope, rather than the actual facts stated. Please see the relevant discussion on the talk page.(June 2008) This article is about male circumcision. For female circumcision, see Female genital cutting. For Judaism's circumcision ritual, see Brit milah.
Male circumcision is the removal of some or all of the foreskin (prepuce) from the penis.[1] The word "circumcision" comes from Latin circum (meaning "around") and cædere (meaning "to cut").
Early depictions of circumcision are found in cave drawings and Ancient Egyptian tombs, though some pictures may be open to interpretation.[2][3][4] Male circumcision is a commandment from God in Judaism.[5] In Islam, though not discussed in the Koran, circumcision is widely practiced and most often considered to be a sunnah.[6] It is also customary in some Christian churches in Africa, including some Oriental Orthodox Churches.[7] According to the World Health Organization (WHO), global estimates suggest that 30% of males are circumcised, of whom two thirds are Muslim.[8] The prevalence of circumcision varies widely between different populations. For example, prevalence is reported to be nearly universal in the Middle East,[9] but under 2% in Scandinavia.[10]
There is scientific evidence supporting both sides of the circumcision controversy. Routine neonatal circumcision advocates claim circumcision provides important health advantages which outweigh the risks, has no substantial effects on sexual function, has a complication rate of less than 0.5% when carried out by an experienced physician, and is best performed during the neonatal period. [11] Opponents of routine neonatal circumcision claim circumcision violates the individual's bodily rights, is medically unnecessary, adversely affects sexual pleasure and performance, and is a practice defended through the use of myths.[12]
In 1999, the American Medical Association stated that virtually all medical organizations and specialty societies do not recommend routine neotantal circumcision,[13] while in 2006 the World Health Organization and UNAIDS recommended promotion of neonatal circumcision to combat the transmission of HIV when done in a safe, culturally acceptable and sustainable manner.[14] Contents [hide]
* 1 Circumcision procedures * 2 Cultures and religions * 3 Ethical, psychological and legal considerations o 3.1 Ethical issues + 3.1.1 Consent o 3.2 Psychological and emotional consequences o 3.3 Legality * 4 Pain and pain relief during circumcision * 5 Sexual effects * 6 Medical aspects o 6.1 Complications from circumcision o 6.2 HIV and other sexually transmitted diseases o 6.3 Hygiene, and infectious and chronic conditions o 6.4 Penile cancer * 7 Policies of various national medical associations o 7.1 United States o 7.2 Canada o 7.3 United Kingdom o 7.4 Australasia * 8 History of circumcision o 8.1 Medical circumcision in the 19th century and early 20th century o 8.2 Circumcision since 1945 * 9 Prevalence of circumcision * 10 See also * 11 Further reading * 12 Notes and references * 13 External links o 13.1 Circumcision opposition o 13.2 Circumcision promotion o 13.3 Circumcision techniques
[edit] Circumcision procedures
For infant circumcision, clamps, such as the Gomco clamp, Plastibell, and Mogen are often used.[15] Clamps cut the blood supply to the foreskin, limit any bleeding and protect the glans. Before using a clamp, the foreskin and the glans are separated with a blunt probe and/or curved hemostat.
* With the Plastibell, the adhesions between glans and foreskin are first cut with a probe. The foreskin is cut longitudinally, the Plastibell is placed over the glans and the foreskin is covered over the Plastibell. A ligature is then tied firmly around the foreskin. This crushes the skin against the groove in the Plastibell. The skin protruding beyond the ring is then cut away. The remaining foreskin and the clamp come off in three to seven days.[16] * With a Gomco clamp, a section of skin is first crushed with a hemostat then slit with scissors. The foreskin is drawn over the bell shaped portion of the clamp and inserted through a hole in the base of the clamp. The clamp is then tightened, "crushing the foreskin between the bell and the base plate." The crushing limits bleeding (provides hemostasis). While the flared bottom of the bell fits tightly against the hole of the base plate, the foreskin is then cut away with a scalpel from above the base plate. The bell prevents the glans being reached by the scalpel.[17] * With a Mogen clamp, the foreskin is grabbed dorsally with a straight hemostat, and lifted up. The Mogen clamp is then slid between the glans and hemostat, following the angle of the corona to "avoid removing excess skin ventrally and to obtain a superior cosmetic result," than with Gomco or Plastibell circumcisions. The clamp is locked shut, and a scalpel is used to cut the foreskin from the flat (upper) side of the clamp.[18][19]
In poor countries, male circumcision is often performed by nonmedical personnel and under unsterile conditions.[20]
[edit] Cultures and religions Jewish ritual circumcision Jewish ritual circumcision
See also: Circumcision in cultures and religions See also: Brit milah See also: Khitan (circumcision)
Circumcising cultures may circumcise their males either shortly after birth, during childhood, or around puberty as part of a rite of passage. Circumcision is most prevalent in the Muslim world, parts of South East Asia, Africa, the United States, Israel, and South Korea. It is commonly practised in the Jewish and Islamic faiths.
Under Jewish law circumcision is a mitzva aseh ("positive commandment" to perform an act) and is obligatory for Jewish-born males, and some Jewish male converts. It is only postponed or abrogated in the case of threat to the life or health of the child.[21] It is usually performed by a mohel on the eighth day after birth in a ceremony called a Brit milah (or Bris milah, colloquially simply bris), which means "Covenant of circumcision" in Hebrew. It is considered of such religious importance that the body of an uncircumcised Jewish male will sometimes be circumcised before burial.[22] Circumcision of Jesus. Illumination from a missal, ca 1460. Municipal Library of Clermont-Ferrand, France Circumcision of Jesus. Illumination from a missal, ca 1460. Municipal Library of Clermont-Ferrand, France
Circumcision is customary among the Coptic, Ethiopian, and Eritrean Orthodox Churches, and also some other African churches.[7] Some Christian churches in South Africa oppose circumcision, viewing it as a pagan ritual, while others, including the Nomiya church in Kenya,[7][23] require circumcision for membership. Some Christian churches celebrate the Circumcision of Christ.[24][25]
In Islam, circumcision is mentioned in some hadith, but not in the Qur'an. Some Fiqh scholars state that circumcision is recommended (Sunnah); others that it is obligatory.[26] Some have quoted the hadith to argue that the requirement of circumcision is based on the covenant with Abraham.[27] While endorsing circumcision for males, scholars note that it is not a requirement for converting to Islam.[28]
Circumcision in South Korea is largely the result of American cultural and military influence following the Korean War. In West Africa infant circumcision may have had tribal significance as a rite of passage or otherwise in the past; today in some non-Muslim Nigerian societies it is medicalised and is simply a cultural norm.[29]
Circumcision is part of initiation rites in some African, Pacific Islander, and Australian aboriginal traditions in areas such as Arnhem Land,[30] where the practice was introduced by Makassan traders from Sulawesi in the Indonesian Archipelago.[31] Circumcision ceremonies among certain Australian aboriginal societies are noted for their painful nature: subincision is practised amongst some aboriginal peoples in the Western Desert.[32] In the Pacific, ritual circumcision is nearly universal in the Melanesian islands of Fiji and Vanuatu;[33] participation in the traditional land diving on Pentecost Island is reserved for those who have been circumcised.[34]
Circumcision is also commonly practiced in the Polynesian islands of Samoa, Tonga, Niue, and Tikopia. In Samoa it is accompanied by a celebration.
Among some West African animist groups, such as the Dogon and Dowayo, circumcision is taken to represent a removal of "feminine" aspects of the male, turning boys into fully masculine males.[35] Among the Urhobo of southern Nigeria it is symbolic of a boy entering into manhood. The ritual expression, Omo te Oshare ("the boy is now man"), constitutes a rite of passage from one age set to another.[36] For Nilotic peoples, such as the Kalenjin and Maasai, circumcision is a rite of passage observed collectively by a number of boys every few years, and boys circumcised at the same time are taken to be members of a single age set.[37]
[edit] Ethical, psychological and legal considerations
[edit] Ethical issues A protest against routine infant circumcision A protest against routine infant circumcision
Main article: Bioethics of neonatal circumcision
The American Medical Association defines “non-therapeutic” circumcision as the non-religious, non-ritualistic, not medically necessary, elective circumcision of male newborns. It states that medical associations in the US, Australia, and Canada do not recommend the routine non-therapeutic circumcision of newborns.[38]
UNAIDS state (2007): "Male circumcision is a voluntary surgical procedure and health care providers must ensure that men and young boys are given all the necessary information to enable them to make free and informed choices either for or against getting circumcised."[39]
Circumcision advocates argue that circumcision prevents infections and slows down the spread of AIDS.[40] Opponents of circumcision question the ethical validity of removing healthy, functioning genital tissue from a minor, arguing that infant circumcision infringes upon individual autonomy and represents a human rights violation.[41][42]
[edit] Consent
Views differ on whether limits should be placed on caregivers having a child circumcised.
Some medical associations take the position that the parents should determine what is in the best interest of the infant or child,[43][38][44] but the Royal Australasian College of Physicians (RACP) and the British Medical Association (BMA) observe that controversy exists on this issue.[45][46] The BMA state that in general, "the parents should determine how best to promote their children’s interests, and it is for society to decide what limits should be imposed on parental choices." They state that because the parents' interests and the child's interests sometimes differ, there are "limits on parents' rights to choose and parents are not entitled to demand medical procedures contrary to their child's best interests." They state that competent children may decide for themselves.[46]
Some argue that the medical problems that have their risk reduced by circumcision are already rare, can be avoided, and, if they occur, can usually be treated in less invasive ways than circumcision. Somerville states that the removal of healthy genital tissue from a minor should not be subject to parental discretion and that physicians who perform the procedure are not acting in accordance with their ethical duties to the patient.[41] Denniston contends that circumcision is harmful and asserts that in the absence of the individual's consent, non-therapeutic child circumcision violates several ethical principles that govern medicine.[47]
Others believe neonatal circumcision is permissible, if parents should so choose. Viens argues that, in a cultural or religious context, circumcision is of significant enough importance that parental consent is sufficient and that there is "an absence of sufficient evidence or persuasive argumentation" to support changing the present policy.[48] Benatar and Benatar argue that circumcision can be beneficial to a male before he would be able to otherwise provide consent, that "it is far from obvious that circumcision reduces sexual pleasure," and that "it is far from clear that non-circumcision leaves open a future person’s options in every regard."[49]
[edit] Psychological and emotional consequences
The British Medical Association (2006) state that "it is now widely accepted, including by the BMA, that this surgical procedure has medical and psychological risks."[46] Goldman (1999) discussed the possible trauma of circumcision on children and parents, anxieties over the circumcised state, a tendency to repeat the trauma, and suggested a need on the part of circumcised doctors to find medical justifications for the procedure.[50] Milos asserts the existence of "excruciating pain, perinatal encoding of the brain with violence, interruption of maternal-infant bonding, betrayal of infant trust..." among other consequences, and points to support groups providing information to Jewish parents "who are grappling with this difficult issue" as well as men "who perceive themselves as victims of a sexual assault."[12] Moses et al. (1998) state that "scientific evidence is lacking" for psychological and emotional harm, and cite a longitudinal study finding no difference in developmental and behavioural indices.[51]
[edit] Legality
Main article: Circumcision and law
In 2001, Sweden allowed only persons certified by the National Board of Health to circumcise infants, requiring a medical doctor or an anesthesia nurse to accompany the circumciser and for anaesthetic to be applied beforehand. Jews and Muslims in Sweden objected to the law,[52] and in 2001, the World Jewish Congress stated that it was “the first legal restriction on Jewish religious practice in Europe since the Nazi era.”[53] In 2005, the Swedish National Board of Health and Welfare reviewed the law and recommended that it be maintained. In 2006, the U.S. State Department's report on Sweden stated that most Jewish mohels had been certified under the law and 3000 Muslim and 40–50 Jewish boys were circumcised each year.[54]
In 2006, a Finnish court found that a parent's actions in having her 4-year-old son circumcised were illegal. The prosecutor argued that, "part of healthy genitalia is removed without medical foundation, or competent consent". No punishment was assigned by the court.[55] In 2008, the Finnish government was reported to be considering a new law to legalise circumcision if the practioner is a doctor and if the child consents..[56]
[edit] Pain and pain relief during circumcision
According to the American Academy of Pediatrics' 1999 Circumcision Policy Statement, “There is considerable evidence that newborns who are circumcised without analgesia experience pain and psychologic stress.”[43] It therefore recommended using pain relief for circumcision.[43] One of the supporting studies, Taddio 1997, found a correlation between circumcision and intensity of pain response during vaccination months later. While acknowledging that there may be "other factors" besides circumcision to account for different levels of pain response, they stated that they did not find evidence of such. They concluded "pretreatment and postoperative management of neonatal circumcision pain is recommended based on these results."[57] Other medical associations also cite evidence that circumcision without anesthetic is painful.[58][59]
Stang, 1998, found 45% of physicians used anaesthesia – most commonly a dorsal penile nerve block – for infant circumcisions. Obstetricians used anaesthesia significantly less often (25%) than family practitioners (56%) or pediatricians (71%).[60] Howard et. al (1998) studied US medical doctor residency programs, and stated that 26% of the programs that taught the circumcision procedure "failed to provide instruction in anesthesia/analgesia for the procedure." They concluded: "Given the overwhelming evidence that neonatal circumcision is painful and the existence of safe and effective anesthesia/analgesia methods, residency training in neonatal circumcision should include instruction in pain relief techniques."[61]
J.M. Glass, 1999, stated that Jewish ritual circumcision is so quick that "most mohelim do not routinely use any anaesthesia as they feel there is probably no need in the neonate. However, there is no Talmudic objection and should the parents wish for local anaesthetic cream to be applied there is no reason why this cannot be done."[21] Tannenbaum and Shechet, 2000, stated that an “authentic, traditional bris performed by a mohel does not use clamps, so there is no pain associated with crushing tissue.”[62] They also asserted that due to the speed of the procedure and rarity of complication, it is “more humane not to subject the infant to a local anesthetic.”[62]
Lander et al., found that babies circumcised without pain relief "exhibited homogeneous responses that consisted of sustained elevation of heart rate and high pitched cry throughout the circumcision and following. Two newborns ... became ill following circumcision (choking and apnea)."[2] A 2004 Cochrane review, which compared the dorsal penile nerve block and EMLA (topical anaesthesia) found both anaesthetics appear safe, but neither of them completely eliminated pain.[63] Razmus et al. reported that newborns circumcised with the dorsal block and the ring block in combination with the concentrated oral sucrose had the lowest pain scores.[64] Ng et al. found that EMLA cream, in addition to local anaesthetic, effectively reduces the sharp pain induced by needle puncture.[65]
Williams (2003) argued that human attitudes toward the pain that animals (including humans) experience may not be based on speciesism; developing an analogy between attitudes toward the pain pigs endure while having their tails "docked", and "our culture's indifference to the pain that male human infants experience while being circumcised."[66]
[edit] Sexual effects
Main article: Sexual effects of circumcision
The sexual effects of circumcision are the subject of much debate. The American Academy of Pediatrics (1999) stated "There are anecdotal reports that penile sensation and sexual satisfaction are decreased for circumcised males", however they also stated that "[a] survey of adult males using self-report suggests more varied sexual practice and less sexual dysfunction in circumcised adult men." They continued, "Masters and Johnson noted no difference in exteroceptive and light tactile discrimination on the ventral or dorsal surfaces of the glans penis between circumcised and uncircumcised men."[43] In January 2007, The American Academy of Family Physicians (AAFP) stated "The effect of circumcision on penile sensation or sexual satisfaction is unknown. Because the epithelium of a circumcised glans becomes cornified, and because some feel nerve over-stimulation leads to desensitization, many believe that the glans of a circumcised penis is less sensitive. [...] No valid evidence to date, however, supports the notion that being circumcised affects sexual sensation or satisfaction."[58]
Conversely, Boyle et al. (2002) stated that "the genitally intact male has thousands of fine touch receptors and other highly erogenous nerve endings—many of which are lost to circumcision, with an inevitable reduction in sexual sensation experienced by circumcised males."[67] They concluded, "Evidence has also started to accumulate that male circumcision may result in lifelong physical, sexual, and sometimes psychological harm as well." Fink et. al. (2002) found a statistically significant increase in erectile dysfunction in circumcised men."[68]
[edit] Medical aspects
Main article: Medical analysis of circumcision
The American Medical Association stated in 1999: "Virtually all current policy statements from specialty societies and medical organizations do not recommend routine neonatal circumcision, and support the provision of accurate and unbiased information to parents to inform their choice."[69] The British Medical Association, states “there is significant disagreement about whether circumcision is overall a beneficial, neutral or harmful procedure. At present, the medical literature on the health, including sexual health, implications of circumcision is contradictory, and often subject to claims of bias in research.”[46] Cost-benefit analyses have varied. Some found a small net benefit of circumcision,[70][71][verification needed] some found a small net decrement,[72][73] and one found that the benefits and risks balanced each other out and suggested that the decision could "most reasonably be made on nonmedical factors."[74]
[edit] Complications from circumcision
Main article: Medical analysis of circumcision
Though one study found that complications, as observed in the immediate postbirth period only, occur in about 0.2% of circumcisions,[75] complications from bleeding, infection and poorly carried out circumcisions can be catastrophic.[76] According to the American Medical Association (AMA), blood loss and infection are the most common complications, but most bleeding is minor and can be stopped by applying pressure.[38] Kaplan identified other complications, including urinary fistulas, meatal stenosis, chordee, cysts, lymphedema, ulceration of the glans, necrosis of all or part of the penis, hypospadias, epispadias, impotence and removal of too much tissue, sometimes causing secondary phimosis. He stated “Virtually all of these complications are preventable with only a modicum of care" and "most such complications occur at the hands of inexperienced operators who are neither urologists nor surgeons.”[77] A penis that has been circumcised (a skin bridge is present in this example). A penis that has been circumcised (a skin bridge is present in this example). A penis that has not been circumcised. A penis that has not been circumcised.
Complication rates ranging from 0.06% to 55% have been cited.[78] Infant circumcision may result in skin bridges,[79] and meatal stenosis may be a common longer-term complication from circumcision.[80][81] The RACP states that the penis is lost in 1 in 1,000,000 circumcisions.[82]
Deaths have been reported.[77][83] The American Academy of Family Physicians states that death is rare, and cites an estimated death rate of 1 infant in 500,000 from circumcision.[58] Gairdner's 1949 study reported that an average of 16 children per year out of about 90,000 died following circumcision in the UK. He found that most deaths had occurred suddenly under anaesthesia and could not be explained further, but hemorrhage and infection had also proven fatal. Deaths attributed to phimosis and circumcision were grouped together, but Gairdner argued that such deaths were probably due to the circumcision operation.[84]
Adult circumcisions are often performed without clamps, and require 4 to 6 weeks of abstinence from masturbation or intercourse after the operation to allow the wound to heal.[citation needed]
[edit] HIV and other sexually transmitted diseases
In March 2007, WHO and the Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS) stated that male circumcision is an effective intervention for HIV prevention, but also noted that male circumcision only provides partial protection and should not replace other interventions to prevent the heterosexual transmission of HIV.[14] The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) state that several types of research have documented that male circumcision significantly reduces the risk of HIV acquisition by men during penile-vaginal sex. Both the WHO and CDC indicate that it may not reduce HIV transmission from men to women, and that data is lacking for the transmission rate of men who engage in anal sex with either a female or male partner, as either the insertive or receptive partner.[14][85]
The World Health Organization (WHO) stated that studies of three trials provide compelling evidence that male circumcision provides a 50–60% reduction in HIV transmission from female to male.[86] All three trials were stopped early by their monitoring boards, because it was judged that the significant reductions in HIV incidence made it unethical to continue following control group participants without offering circumcision.[87] WHO and UNAIDS have stated that scientific findings regarding the role of male circumcision in preventing heterosexual HIV infection are particularly relevant in regions where the incidence of heterosexually acquired HIV infection is high, such as Sub-Saharan Africa, and stressed that the procedure must be carried out safely and under conditions of informed consent.[88][89] Before there were any results from randomized controlled trials, reviews of observational data differed as to whether there was sufficient evidence for an intervention effect of circumcision against HIV.[90][91]
McCoombe et al. stated that a layer of keratin could provide protection from viral entry, and found that the keratin is thinner on the foreskin than the glans penis, and thinnest on the inner surface of the foreskin.[92]
While more than 40 epidemiological studies have demonstrated that circumcision has a protective effect against male acquisition of HIV,[93] other reports have indicated that circumcision has little to no effect on HIV transmission.[94][95][96] Furthermore, some have challenged the validity of the African randomized controlled trials, prompting a number of researchers to question the effectiveness of circumcision as an HIV prevention strategy.[97][98]
A meta-analysis found that circumcision is associated with lower rates of syphilis, chancroid and possibly genital herpes.[99]
[edit] Hygiene, and infectious and chronic conditions
Studies have found that boys with foreskins tend to have higher rates of various infections and inflammations of the penis than those who are circumcised.[100][101][102] The foreskin may harbor bacteria and become infected if it is not cleaned properly,[103] but may become inflamed if it is cleaned too often with soap.[104] Also, the forcible retraction of the foreskin in boys can lead to infections.[78]
Circumcision is one treatment for balanitis. The usual treatment for balanoposthitis is to use topical antibiotics (metronidazole cream) and antifungals (clotrimazole cream) or low-potency steroid creams.[105]
Several studies have shown that uncircumcised men are at greater risk of human papilloma virus (HPV) infection.[106][107][108] One study found no statistically significant difference in the incidence of HPV infection between circumcised and uncircumcised men, but did note a higher prevalence of urethritis in the uncircumcised.[109] Results of the 1999 to 2004 United States National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey demonstrated that more circumcised men reported having been diagnosed with genital warts compared with uncircumcised men (4.5% and 2.4%, respectively).[110]
Twelve studies have indicated that neonatal circumcision reduces the rate of Urinary tract infections (UTI's) in male infants by a factor of about 10.[111] Some UTI studies have been criticized for not taking into account a high rate of UTI's among premature infants, who are usually not circumcised because of their fragile health status.[43] The AMA stated that “depending on the model employed, approximately 100 to 200 circumcisions would need to be performed to prevent 1 UTI," and noted one decision analysis model that concluded that circumcision was not justified as a preventative measure against UTI.[38]
[edit] Penile cancer
Penile cancer affects from 0.82 per 100,000 in Denmark to 10.5 per 100,000 men per year in parts of India (0.9 to 1 per 100,000 in the United States).[43] Studies have reported a rate of penile cancer from 3 to 22 times higher in uncircumcised than circumcised men.[112][113]
The American Academy of Pediatrics (1999) stated that studies suggest that neonatal circumcision confers some protection from penile cancer, but circumcision at a later age does not seem to confer the same level of protection. Further, because penile cancer is a rare disease, the risk of penile cancer developing in an uncircumcised man, although increased compared with a circumcised man, remains low.[43]
The American Cancer Society (2006) stated, "The current consensus of most experts is that circumcision should not be recommended as a prevention strategy for penile cancer."[114]
[edit] Policies of various national medical associations
[edit] United States
The American Academy of Pediatrics (1999) does not recommend that all infant boys be circumcised, and state that parents should choose what is best for their child by looking at the benefits and risks.[115] If parents choose to circumcise the AAP also recommended using analgesia to reduce pain associated with circumcision, and that circumcision only be performed on newborns who are stable and healthy.[116]
The American Academy of Family Physicians (2007) recommends that physicians discuss the potential harms and benefits of circumcision with all parents or legal guardians considering circumcision for newborn boys.[117]
The American Medical Association supports the general principles of the 1999 Circumcision Policy Statement of the American Academy of Pediatrics.[38]
The American Urological Association (2007) believes that neonatal circumcision has potential medical benefits and advantages as well as disadvantages and risks. "[118]
[edit] Canada
The Fetus and Newborn Committee of the Canadian Paediatric Society posted "Circumcision: Information for Parents" in November 2004,[59] and "Neonatal circumcision revisited" in 1996. The 1996 position statement says that "circumcision of newborns should not be routinely performed," (a statement with which the Royal Australasian College of Physicians concurs,) and the 2004 advice to parents says it "does not recommend circumcision for newborn boys. Many pediatricians no longer perform circumcisions."[44]
[edit] United Kingdom
The British Medical Association's position (June 2006) was that male circumcision for medical purposes should only be used where less invasive procedures are either unavailable or not as effective. The BMA specifically refrained from issuing a policy regarding “non-therapeutic circumcision,” stating that as a general rule, it “believes that parents should be entitled to make choices about how best to promote their children’s interests, and it is for society to decide what limits should be imposed on parental choices.”[119]
[edit] Australasia
The Royal Australasian College of Physicians states "there is no medical indication for routine neonatal circumcision". It states, "If the operation is to be performed, the medical attendant should ensure this is done by a competent operator, using appropriate anaesthesia and in a safe child-friendly environment"[45]
The Tasmanian President of the Australian Medical Association (AMA), Haydn Walters, has stated that the AMA would support a call to ban circumcision for non-medical, non-religious reasons.[120]
[edit] History of circumcision
Main article: History of male circumcision
Ancient Egyptian carved scene of circumcision, from the inner northern wall of the Temple of Khonspekhrod at the Precinct of Mut, Luxor, Egypt. Eighteenth dynasty, Amenhotep III, c. 1360 BC. Ancient Egyptian carved scene of circumcision, from the inner northern wall of the Temple of Khonspekhrod at the Precinct of Mut, Luxor, Egypt. Eighteenth dynasty, Amenhotep III, c. 1360 BC.
It has been variously proposed that circumcision began as a religious sacrifice, as a rite of passage marking a boy's entrance into adulthood, as a form of sympathetic magic to ensure virility, as a means of suppressing (or enhancing) sexual pleasure or to increase a man's attractiveness to women, or as an aid to hygiene where regular bathing was impractical, among other possibilities. Immerman et al. suggest that circumcision causes lowered sexual arousal of pubescent males, and hypothesize that this was a competitive advantage to tribes practicing circumcision, leading to its spread regardless of whether the people understood this.[121] It is possible that circumcision arose independently in different cultures for different reasons.
The oldest documentary evidence for circumcision comes from ancient Egypt.[122] Circumcision was common, although not universal, among ancient Semitic peoples.[123] In the aftermath of the conquests of Alexander the Great, however, Greek dislike of circumcision (they regarded a man as truly "naked" only if his prepuce was retracted) led to a decline in its incidence among many peoples that had previously practised it.[124]
[edit] Medical circumcision in the 19th century and early 20th century Family circumcision set and trunk, ca. eighteenth century Wooden box covered in cow hide with silver implements: silver trays, clip, pointer, silver flask, spice vessel. Family circumcision set and trunk, ca. eighteenth century Wooden box covered in cow hide with silver implements: silver trays, clip, pointer, silver flask, spice vessel.
There are several hypotheses to explain why infant circumcision was accepted in the United States about the year 1900. The germ theory of disease elicited an image of the human body as a conveyance for many dangerous germs, making the public "germ phobic" and suspicious of dirt and bodily secretions. Because of its function, the penis became "dirty" by association, and from this premise circumcision was seen as preventative medicine to be practiced universally.[125] In the view of many practitioners at the time, circumcision was a method of treating and preventing masturbation.[125] It was also said to protect against syphilis,[126] phimosis, paraphimosis, balanitis, and "excessive venery" (which was believed to produce paralysis).[125] Gollaher states that physicians advocating circumcision in the late nineteenth century expected public skepticism, and refined their arguments to overcome it.[125]
Infant circumcision was taken up in the United States, Australia and the English-speaking parts of Canada, South Africa and to a lesser extent in the United Kingdom and New Zealand. Although it is difficult to determine historical circumcision rates, one estimate[3] of infant circumcision rates in the United States holds that 30% of newborn American boys were being circumcised in 1900, 55% in 1925, and 72% in 1950.
[edit] Circumcision since 1945
In 1949, the United Kingdom's newly-formed National Health Service removed infant circumcision from its list of covered services. Since then, circumcision has been an out-of-pocket cost to parents, and the proportion of newborns circumcised in England and Wales has fallen to less than one percent. In Canada, individual provincial health services began delisting circumcision in the 1980s.
In South Korea, circumcision grew in popularity following the establishment of the United States trusteeship in 1945 and the spread of American influence. More than 90% of South Korean high school boys are now circumcised, but the average age of circumcision is 12 years.[127]
In some South African ethnic groups, circumcision has roots in several belief systems, and is mostly performed on teenage boys.
A study in 1987 found that the prominent reasons for parents choosing circumcision were "concerns about the attitudes of peers and their sons' self concept in the future," rather than medical concerns.[4] A 2005 study speculated that increased recognition of the potential benefits may be responsible for an observed increase in the rate of neonatal circumcision in the USA between 1988 and 2000.[5]
[edit] Prevalence of circumcision Estimates by country of prevalence of circumcision; dark red <20%, gold 20-80%, green >80% Estimates by country of prevalence of circumcision; dark red <20%, gold 20-80%, green >80%
Main article: Prevalence of circumcision
Estimates of the proportion of males that are circumcised worldwide vary from one-sixth[128] to a third.[129] WHO has estimated that 664,500,000 males aged 15 and over are circumcised (30% global prevalence), with almost 70% of these being Muslim.[88] Prevalence is near universal in the Middle East and Central Asia.[88] WHO states that "there is generally little non-religious circumcision in Asia, with the exceptions of the Republic of Korea and the Philippines".[88] WHO presents a map of estimated prevalence in which the level is generally low (< 20%) across Europe,[88] and Klavs et al. report findings that "support the notion that the prevalence is low in Europe".[130] In Latin America, prevalence is universally low.[131] Estimates for individual countries include Spain[132], Colombia[132] and Denmark[133] less than 2%, Finland[134] and Brazil[132] 7%, Taiwan[135] 9% and Thailand[132] 13%.
WHO estimates prevalence in the United States and Canada at 75% and 30%, respectively.[88] Prevalence in Africa varies from less than 20% in some southern African countries to near universal in North and West Africa.[131] The circumcision rate has declined sharply in Australia since the 1970s, leading to an age-graded fall in prevalence, with a 2000-01 survey finding 32% of those aged 16-19 years circumcised, 50% for 20-29 years and 64% for those aged 30-39 years.[136][137] Prevalence in the UK is also age-graded, with 12% of those aged 16-19 years circumcised and 20% of those aged 40-44 years.[138]
[edit] See also
* Brit milah * Circumcision scar * Foreskin restoration * Genital integrity * Genital modification and mutilation * Holy Prepuce * Preputioplasty, alternative to circumcision in the treatment for phimosis
[edit] Further reading
* Billy Ray Boyd. Circumcision Exposed: Rethinking a Medical and Cultural Tradition. Freedom, CA: The Crossing Press, 1998. (ISBN 978-0-89594-939-4) * Anne Briggs. Circumcision: What Every Parent Should Know. Charlottesville, VA: Birth & Parenting Publications, 1985. (ISBN 978-0-9615484-0-7) * Robert Darby. A surgical temptation: The demonization of the foreskin and the rise of circumcision in Britain. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2005. (ISBN 978-0-226-13645-5) * Aaron J. Fink, M.D. Circumcision: A Parent's Decision for Life. Kavanah Publishing Company, Inc., 1988. (ISBN 978-0-9621347-0-8) * Paul M. Fleiss, M.D. and Frederick Hodges, D. Phil. What Your Doctor May Not Tell You About Circumcision. New York: Warner Books, 2002. (ISBN 978-0-446-67880-3) * Leonard B. Glick. Marked in Your Flesh: Circumcision from Ancient Judea to Modern America. New York: Oxford University Press, 2005. (ISBN 978-0-19-517674-2) * David Gollaher. Circumcision: A History of the World's Most Controversial Surgery. New York: Basic Books, 2000. (ISBN 0465026532) * Ronald Goldman, Ph.D. Circumcision: The Hidden Trauma. Boston: Vanguard, 1996. (ISBN 978-0-9644895-3-0) * Paysach J. Krohn, Rabbi. Bris Milah. Circumcision—The Covenant Of Abraham/A Compendium of Laws, Rituals, And Customs From Birth To Bris, Anthologized From Talmudic, And Traditional Sources. New York: Mesorah Publications, 1985, 2005. * Brian J. Morris, Ph.D., D.Sc. In Favour of Circumcision. Sydney: UNSW Press, 1999. (ISBN 978-0-86840-537-7) * Peter Charles Remondino. History of Circumcision from the Earliest Times to the Present. Philadelphia and London; F. A. Davis; 1891. * Rosemary Romberg. Circumcision: The Painful Dilemma. South Hadley, MA Bergan & Garvey, 1985. (ISBN 978-0-89789-073-1) * Edgar J Schoen, M.D. Ed Schoen, MD on Circumcision. Berkeley, CA: RDR Books, 2005. (ISBN 978-1-57143-123-3) * Edward Wallerstein. Circumcision: An American Health Fallacy. New York: Springer, 1980 (ISBN 978-0-8261-3240-6) * Gerald N. Weiss M.D. and Andrea W Harter. Circumcision: Frankly Speaking. Wiser Publications, 1998. (ISBN 978-0-9667219-0-4) * Yosef David Weisberg, Rabbi. Otzar Habris. Encyclopedia of the laws and customs of Bris Milah and Pidyon Haben. Jerusalem: Hamoer, 2002.
[edit] Notes and references Some referenced articles are available on-line only in the Circumcision Information and Resource Page’s (CIRP) library or in The Circumcision Reference Library (CIRCS). CIRP articles are chosen from an anti-circumcision point of view, and text in support of this position is often highlighted on-screen using HTML. CIRCS articles are chosen from a pro-circumcision point of view. If documents are not freely available on-line elsewhere, links to articles in one or other of these two websites may be provided.
1. ^ Dictionary definitions of circumcision: * "The act of cutting off the prepuce or foreskin of males, or the internal labia of females." Webster's Revised Unabridged Dictionary (1913) [1] * "to remove the foreskin of (males) sometimes as a religious rite." The Macquarie Dictionary (2nd Edition, 1991) * "Cut off foreskin of (as Jewish or Mohammedan rite, or surgically), Concise Oxford Dictionary, 5th Edition, 1964 Circumcision defined in a medical context: * "Male circumcision is the surgical removal of all or part of the foreskin of the penis." Information Package on Male Circumcision and HIV Prevention:Insert 1, World Health Organization * "Circumcision, surgical removal of all or part of the foreskin of the human male...", "Circumcision", Microsoft Encarta, 2007. * "Male circumcision is an elective surgery to remove the foreskin..." Circumcision, British Columbia Health Guide, June 2, 2006. Retrieved July 18, 2007. * "Circumcision is surgery..." Pain and Your Infant: Medical Procedures, Circumcision and Teething, University of Michigan Health System, February 2007. Retrieved July 18, 2007. * " Circumcision is cutting away part of the foreskin... When this surgery is performed..." Newborn Care, Danbury Hospital website. Retrieved July 18, 2007. 2. ^ Hodges, F.M. (Fall 2001). "The ideal prepuce in ancient Greece and Rome: male genital aesthetics and their relation to lipodermos, circumcision, foreskin restoration, and the kynodesme.". The Bulletin of the History of Medicine 75 (3): 375–405. doi:10.1353/bhm.2001.0119. PMID 11568485. 3. ^ Wrana, P. (1939). "Historical review: Circumcision". Archives of Pediatrics 56: 385–392. as quoted in: Zoske, Joseph (Winter 1998). "Male Circumcision: A Gender Perspective". The Journal of Men's Studies 6 (2): 189–208. Retrieved on 2006-06-14. 4. ^ Gollaher, David L. (February 2000). Circumcision: a history of the world’s most controversial surgery. New York, NY: Basic Books, 53–72. ISBN 978-0-465-04397-2 LCCN 99-40015. 5. ^ "Circumcision". American-Israeli Cooperative Enterprise. Retrieved on 2006-10-03. 6. ^ S.A.H Rizvi, S.A A Naqvi, M Hussain, A.S Hasan (1999). "Religious circumcision: a Muslim view" (PDF). BJU International 83 (s1): 13–16. doi:10.1046/j.1464-410x.1999.0830s1013.x. 7. ^ a b c Customary in some Coptic and other churches: * "The Coptic Christians in Egypt and the Ethiopian Orthodox Christians— two of the oldest surviving forms of Christianity— retain many of the features of early Christianity, including male circumcision. Circumcision is not prescribed in other forms of Christianity... Some Christian churches in South Africa oppose the practice, viewing it as a pagan ritual, while others, including the Nomiya church in Kenya, require circumcision for membership and participants in focus group discussions in Zambia and Malawi mentioned similar beliefs that Christians should practice circumcision since Jesus was circumcised and the Bible teaches the practice." Male Circumcision: context, criteria and culture (Part 1), Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS, February 26, 2007. * "The decision that Christians need not practice circumcision is recorded in Acts 15; there was never, however, a prohibition of circumcision, and it is practiced by Coptic Christians." "circumcision", The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition, 2001-05. 8. ^ "Male circumcision: Global trends and determinants of prevalence, safety and acceptability". World Health Organization (2007). Retrieved on 2008-08-20. 9. ^ "Insert 2". Information Package on Male Circumcision and HIV Prevention. World Health Organization (2007). Retrieved on 2007-08-15. 10. ^ A M K Rickwood, S E Kenny, S C Donnell (2000). "Towards evidence based circumcision of English boys: survey of trends in practice" (PDF). BMJ 321 (7264): 792–793. doi:10.1136/bmj.321.7264.792. 11. ^ Schoen, Edgar J (2007). "Should newborns be circumcised? Yes". Can Fam Physician 53 (12): 2096–8, 2100–2. PMID 18077736. Retrieved on 2008-05-02. 12. ^ a b Milos, Marilyn Fayre; Donna Macris (March–April 1992). "Circumcision: A medical or a human rights issue?". Journal of Nurse-Midwifery 37 (2 S1): S87–S96. doi:10.1016/0091-2182(92)90012-R. PMID 1573462. Retrieved on 2007-04-06. 13. ^ "Neonatal Circumcision". Retrieved on 2008-04-20. 14. ^ a b c (March 28, 2007). "New Data on Male Circumcision and HIV Prevention: Policy and Programme Implications" (PDF). World Health Organization. Retrieved on 2007-08-13. 15. ^ Holman, John R.; Evelyn L. Lewis, Robert L. Ringler (August 1995). "Neonatal circumcision techniques – includes patient information sheet". American Family Physician 52 (2): 511–520. ISSN 0002-838X PMID 7625325. Retrieved on 2006-06-29. 16. ^ Herbert, Barrie; et al (1965). "The Plastibell Technique for Circumcision". Br Med J 2 (5456): 273–275. PMID 14310205. 17. ^ Peleg, David; Ann Steiner (September 15, 1998). "The Gomco Circumcision: Common Problems and Solutions". American Family Physician 58 (4): 891–898. ISSN 0002-838X PMID 9767725. Retrieved on 2006-06-29. 18. ^ Pfenninger, John L.; Grant C. Fowler [1994] (July 21, 2003). Procedures for primary care, 2nd, Mosby. ISBN 978-0-323-00506-7 LCCN 2003-56227. 19. ^ Reynolds, RD (July 1996). "Use of the Mogen clamp for neonatal circumcision" (Abstract). American Family Physician 54 (1): 177–182. PMID 8677833. Retrieved on 2006-07-18. 20. ^ "In Africa, a problem with circumcision and AIDS". 21. ^ a b Glass, J.M. (January 1999). "Religious circumcision: a Jewish view" (PDF). BJU International 83 (Supplement 1): 17–21. doi:10.1046/j.1464-410x.1999.0830s1017.x. PMID 10766529. Retrieved on 2006-10-18. 22. ^ Lamm, Maurice [1969]. The Jewish Way in Death and Mourning. New York: Jonathan David, 239–240. 23. ^ Mattson, C.L.; R.C. Bailey, R. Muga, R. Poulussen, T. Onyango (February 2005). "Acceptability of male circumcision and predictors of circumcision preference among men and women in Nyanza Province, Kenya". AIDS Care 17 (2): 182–194. doi:10.1080/09540120512331325671. PMID 15763713. 24. ^ "Greek Orthodox Archdiocese calendar of Holy Days". 25. ^ "Russian Orthodox Church, Patriarchate of Moscow". 26. ^ Al-Munajjid, Muhammed Salih. "Question #9412: Circumcision: how it is done and the rulings on it". Islam Q&A. Retrieved on 2006-07-01. 27. ^ Al-Munajjid, Muhammed Salih. "Question #7073: The health and religious benefits of circumcision". Islam Q&A. Retrieved on 2006-07-01. 28. ^ al-Sabbagh, Muhammad Lutfi (1996). Islamic ruling on male and female circumcision. Alexandria: World Health Organization, 16. 29. ^ Ajuwon et al., "Indigenous surgical practices in rural southwestern Nigeria: Implications for disease," Health Educ. Res..1995; 10: 379–384 Health Educ. Res..1995; 10: 379–384 Retrieved 3 October 2006 30. ^ Aaron David Samuel Corn (2001). "Ngukurr Crying: Male Youth in a Remote Indigenous Community" (PDF). Working Paper Series No. 2. University of Wollongong. Retrieved on 2006-10-18. 31. ^ "Migration and Trade". Green Turtle Dreaming. Retrieved on 2006-10-18. “In exchange for turtles and trepang the Makassans introduced tobacco, the practice of circumcision and knowledge to build sea-going canoes.” 32. ^ Jones, IH (June 1969). "Subincision among Australian western desert Aborigines". British Journal of Medical Psychology 42 (2): 183–190. ISSN 0007-1129 PMID 5783777. 33. ^ "RECENT GUEST SPEAKER". Australian AIDS Fund Incorporated (2006). Retrieved on 2006-07-01. 34. ^ "Weird & Wonderful". United Travel. Retrieved on 2006-07-01. 35. ^ "Circumcision amongst the Dogon". The Non-European Components of European Patrimony (NECEP) Database (2006). Retrieved on 2006-09-03. 36. ^ Agberia, John Tokpabere (2006). "Aesthetics and Rituals of the Opha Ceremony among the Urhobo People" (PDF). Journal of Asian and African Studies 41 (3): 249–260. doi:10.1177/0021909606063880. Retrieved on 2006-10-18. 37. ^ "Masai of Kenya". Retrieved on 2007-04-06. “Authority derives from the age-group and the age-set. Prior to circumcision a natural leader or olaiguenani is selected; he leads his age-group through a series of rituals until old age, sharing responsibility with a select few, of whom the ritual expert (oloiboni) is the ultimate authority. Masai youths are not circumcised until they are mature, and a new age-set is initiated together at regular intervals of twelve to fifteen years. The young warriors (ilmurran) remain initiates for some time, using blunt arrows to hunt small birds which are stuffed and tied to a frame to form a head-dress.” 38. ^ a b c d e "Report 10 of the Council on Scientific Affairs (I-99):Neonatal Circumcision". 1999 AMA Interim Meeting: Summaries and Recommendations of Council on Scientific Affairs Reports 17. American Medical Association (December 1999). Retrieved on 2006-06-13. 39. ^ "Information Package on Male Circumcision and HIV Prevention". 40. ^ Auvert, Bertran; Dirk Taljaard, Emmanuel Lagarde, Joëlle Sobngwi-Tambekou, Rémi Sitta, Adrian Puren (November 2005). "Randomized, Controlled Intervention Trial of Male Circumcision for Reduction of HIV Infection Risk: The ANRS 1265 Trial" (PDF). PLoS Medicine 2 (11): 1112–1122. doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.0020298. PMID 16231970. Retrieved on 2006-07-09. 41. ^ a b Somerville, Margaret (November 2000). "Altering Baby Boys’ Bodies: The Ethics of Infant Male Circumcision", The ethical canary: science, society, and the human spirit. New York, NY: Viking Penguin Canada, 202–219. LCCN 2001-369341. ISBN 0670893021. Retrieved on 2007-02-12. 42. ^ Van Howe, R.S.; J.S. Svoboda, J.G. Dwyer, and C.P. Price (January 1999). "Involuntary circumcision: the legal issues" (PDF). BJU International 83 (Supp1): 63–73. doi:10.1046/j.1464-410x.1999.0830s1063.x. PMID 10349416. Retrieved on 2007-02-12. 43. ^ a b c d e f g American Academy of Pediatrics Task Force on Circumcision (March 1, 1999). "Circumcision Policy Statement" (PDF). Pediatrics 103 (3): 686–693. doi:10.1542/peds.103.3.686. ISSN 0031-4005 PMID 10049981. Retrieved on 2006-07-01. 44. ^ a b Fetus and Newborn Committee (March 1996). "Neonatal circumcision revisited". Canadian Medical Association Journal 154 (6): 769–780. Retrieved on 2006-07-02. “We undertook this literature review to consider whether the CPS should change its position on routine neonatal circumcision from that stated in 1982. The review led us to conclude the following. There is evidence that circumcision results in an approximately 12-fold reduction in the incidence of UTI during infancy. The overall incidence of UTI in male infants appears to be 1% to 2%. The incidence rate of the complications of circumcision reported in published articles varies, but it is generally in the order of 0.2% to 2%. Most complications are minor, but occasionally serious complications occur. There is a need for good epidemiological data on the incidence of the surgical complications of circumcision, of the later complications of circumcision and of problems associated with lack of circumcision. Evaluation of alternative methods of preventing UTI in infancy is required. More information on the effect of simple hygienic interventions is needed. Information is required on the incidence of circumcision that is truly needed in later childhood. There is evidence that circumcision results in a reduction in the incidence of penile cancer and of HIV transmission. However, there is inadequate information to recommend circumcision as a public health measure to prevent these diseases. When circumcision is performed, appropriate attention needs to be paid to pain relief. The overall evidence of the benefits and harms of circumcision is so evenly balanced that it does not support recommending circumcision as a routine procedure for newborns. There is therefore no indication that the position taken by the CPS in 1982 should be changed. When parents are making a decision about circumcision, they should be advised of the present state of medical knowledge about its benefits and harms. Their decision may ultimately be based on personal, religious or cultural factors. 45. ^ a b "Policy Statement On Circumcision" (PDF). Royal Australasian College of Physicians (September 2004). Retrieved on 2007-02-28. “The Paediatrics and Child Health Division, The Royal Australasian College of Physicians (RACP) has prepared this statement on routine circumcision of infants and boys to assist parents who are considering having this procedure undertaken on their male children and for doctors who are asked to advise on or undertake it. After extensive review of the literature the RACP reaffirms that there is no medical indication for routine neonatal circumcision. Circumcision of males has been undertaken for religious and cultural reasons for many thousands of years. It remains an important ritual in some religious and cultural groups.…In recent years there has been evidence of possible health benefits from routine male circumcision. The most important conditions where some benefit may result from circumcision are urinary tract infections, HIV and later cancer of the penis.…The complication rate of neonatal circumcision is reported to be around 1% to 5% and includes local infection, bleeding and damage to the penis. Serious complications such as bleeding, septicaemia and meningitis may occasionally cause death. The possibility that routine circumcision may contravene human rights has been raised because circumcision is performed on a minor and is without proven medical benefit. Whether these legal concerns are valid will be known only if the matter is determined in a court of law. If the operation is to be performed, the medical attendant should ensure this is done by a competent operator, using appropriate anaesthesia and in a safe child-friendly environment. In all cases where parents request a circumcision for their child the medical attendant is obliged to provide accurate information on the risks and benefits of the procedure. Up-to-date, unbiased written material summarising the evidence should be widely available to parents. Review of the literature in relation to risks and benefits shows there is no evidence of benefit outweighing harm for circumcision as a routine procedure in the neonate.” 46. ^ a b c d Medical Ethics Committee (June 2006). "The law and ethics of male circumcision – guidance for doctors". British Medical Association. Retrieved on 2006-07-01. 47. ^ "Circumcision and the Code of Ethics, George C. Denniston, Humane Health Care Volume 12, Number 2". 48. ^ Viens AM (2004). "Value judgment, harm, and religious liberty". J Med Ethics 30: 241–7. doi:10.1136/jme.2003.003921. 49. ^ Benatar, David; Benatar, Michael (2003). "How not to argue about circumcision". American Journal of Bioethics 3 (2): W1–W9. doi:10.1162/152651603102387820. 50. ^ Goldman, R. (January 1999). "The psychological impact of circumcision" (PDF). BJU International 83 (S1): 93–102. doi:10.1046/j.1464-410x.1999.0830s1093.x. Retrieved on 2006-07-02. 51. ^ Moses, S; Bailey, RC; Ronald AR (1998). "Male circumcision: assessment of health benefits and risks". Sex Transm Infect 74: 368–73. 52. ^ "Sweden restricts circumcisions". BBC Europe (October 1, 2001). Retrieved on 2006-10-18. “Swedish Jews and Muslims object to the new law, saying it violates their religious rights.” 53. ^ Reuters (June 7, 2001). "Jews protest Swedish circumcision restriction". Canadian Children's Rights Council. Retrieved on 2006-10-18. “A WJC spokesman said, ‘This is the first legal restriction placed on a Jewish rite in Europe since the Nazi era. This new legislation is totally unacceptable to the Swedish Jewish community.’” 54. ^ Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor (September 15, 2006). "Sweden". International Religious Freedom Report 2006. US Department of State. Retrieved on 2007-07-04. 55. ^ "Court rules circumcision of four-year-old boy illegal". HELSINGIN SANOMAT, INTERNATIONAL EDITION (2006-08-07). Retrieved on 2007-09-17. 56. ^ "Finland Considers Legalising Male Circumcision". Ylesiradio (2008-08-02). Retrieved on 2007-09-17. 57. ^ Taddio, Anna; Joel Katz, A Lane Ilersich, Gideon Koren (March 1997). "Effect of neonatal circumcision on pain response during subsequent routine vaccination" (PDF — free registration required). The Lancet 349 (9052): 599–603. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(96)10316-0. Retrieved on 2007-08-08. 58. ^ a b c "Circumcision: Position Paper on Neonatal Circumcision". American Academy of Family Physicians (2007). Retrieved on 2007-01-30. 59. ^ a b "Circumcision: Information for parents". Caring for kids. Canadian Paediatric Society (November 2004). Retrieved on 2006-10-24. “Circumcision is a “non-therapeutic” procedure, which means it is not medically necessary. Parents who decide to circumcise their newborns often do so for religious, social or cultural reasons. To help make the decision about circumcision, parents should have information about risks and benefits. It is helpful to speak with your baby’s doctor. After reviewing the scientific evidence for and against circumcision, the CPS does not recommend routine circumcision for newborn boys. Many paediatricians no longer perform circumcisions.” 60. ^ Stang, Howard J.; Leonard W. Snellman (June 1998). "Circumcision Practice Patterns in the United States" (PDF). Pediatrics 101 (6): e5–. doi:10.1542/peds.101.6.e5. ISSN 1098-4275. Retrieved on 2006-06-29. 61. ^ Howard, Cynthia R.; Fred M. Howard, Lynn C. Garfunkel, Elisabeth A. de Blieck, Michael Weitzman (1998-03). "Neonatal Circumcision and Pain Relief: Current Training Practices". Pediatrics 101 (3): 423–428. Retrieved on 2008-06-19. 62. ^ a b Shechet, Jacob; Barton Tanenbaum (2000). "Circumcision—The Debates Goes On" (PDF). Pediatrics 105 (3): 682–683. doi:10.1542/peds.105.3.681. PMID 10733391. Retrieved on 2007-04-06. 63. ^ Brady-Fryer, B; Wiebe N, Lander JA (July 2004). "Pain relief for neonatal circumcision". The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews (3): Art. No.: CD004217. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD004217.pub2. PMID 15495086. Retrieved on 2006-06-29. 64. ^ Razmus I, Dalton M, Wilson D. "Pain management for newborn circumcision". Pediatr Nurs 30 (5): 414–7, 427. PMID 15587537. 65. ^ Ng, WT; et al. (2001). "The use of topical lidocaine/prilocaine cream prior to childhood circumcision under local anesthesia". Ambul Surg 9 (1): 9–12. doi:10.1016/S0966-6532(00)00061-5. PMID 11179706. 66. ^ Williams, R. M. (2003-01). "On the Tail-Docking of Pigs, Human Circumcision, and their Implications for Prevailing Opinion Regarding Pain". Journal of Applied Philosophy 20 (1): 89–93. doi:10.1111/1468-5930.00237. Retrieved on 2008-06-24. 67. ^ Boyle, Gregory J; Svoboda, J Steven; Goldman, Ronald; Fernandez, Ephrem (2002). "Male circumcision: pain, trauma, and psychosexual sequelae". Bond University Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences. 68. ^ Fink, Kenneth S.; Culley C. Carson, Robert S. DeVellis (May 2002). "Adult Circumcision Outcomes Study: Effect on Erectile Dysfunction, Penile Sensitivity, Sexual Activity and Satisfation". Journal of Urology 167 (5): 2113–2116. Retrieved on 2008-06-28. 69. ^ "Neonatal Circumcision". Retrieved on 2008-04-20. 70. ^ Schoen, Edgar J.; Christopher J. Colby, Trinh T. To (March 2006). "Cost Analysis of Neonatal Circumcision in a Large Health Maintenance Organization" (Abstract). The Journal of Urology 175 (3): 1111–1115. doi:10.1016/S0022-5347(05)00399-X. PMID 16469634. Retrieved on 2006-07-01. 71. ^ Alanis, Mark C.; Richard S. Lucidi (May 2004). "Neonatal Circumcision: A Review of the World’s Oldest and Most Controversial Operation" (Abstract). Obstetrical & Gynecological Survey 59 (5): 379–395. PMID 15097799. Retrieved on 2006-09-27. 72. ^ Van Howe, Robert S. (November 2004). "A Cost-Utility Analysis of Neonatal Circumcision" (Abstract). Medical Decision Making 24 (6): 584–601. doi:10.1177/0272989X04271039. PMID 15534340. Retrieved on 2006-07-01. 73. ^ Ganiats, TG; Humphrey JB, Taras HL, Kaplan RM. (Oct–Dec 1991). "Routine neonatal circumcision: a cost-utility analysis". Medical Decision Making 11 (4): 282–293. PMID 1766331. Retrieved on 2006-07-01. 74. ^ Lawler, FH; Bisonni RS, Holtgrave DR. (Nov–Dec 1991). "Circumcision: a decision analysis of its medical value.". Family Medicine 23 (8): 587–593. PMID 1794670. Retrieved on 2006-07-01. 75. ^ Christakis, Dmitry A.; Eric Harvey, Danielle M. Zerr, Chris Feudtner, Jeffrey A. Wright, and Frederick A. Connell (January 2000). "A Trade-off Analysis of Routine Newborn Circumcision" (PDF). Pediatrics 105 (1): 246–249. doi:10.1542/peds.105.1.S2.246 (inactive 2008-06-26). PMID 10617731. Retrieved on 2006-07-01. 76. ^ Ahmed A,, A; Mbibi NH, Dawam D, Kalayi GD (March 1999). "Complications of traditional male circumcision". Annals of Tropical Paediatrics 19 (1): 113–117. PMID 10605531 ISSN 0272-4936. Retrieved on 2006-07-01. 77. ^ a b Kaplan, G.W. (August 1983). "Complications of Circumcision" (HTML). Urologic Clinics of North America 10 (3): 543–549. PMID 6623741. Retrieved on 2006-09-29. 78. ^ a b Fetus and Newborn Committee (March 1996). "Neonatal circumcision revisited". Canadian Medical Association Journal 154 (6): 769–780. Retrieved on 2006-07-02. 79. ^ Naimer, Sody A.; Roni Peleg, Yevgeni Meidvidovski, Alex Zvulunov, Arnon Dov Cohen, and Daniel Vardy (November 2002). "Office Management of Penile Skin Bridges with Electrocautery" (PDF). Journal of the American Board of Family Practice 15 (6): 485–488. PMID 10605531. Retrieved on 2006-07-01. 80. ^ Yegane, Rooh-Allah; Abdol-Reza Kheirollahi, Nour-Allah Salehi, Mohammad Bashashati, Jamal-Aldin Khoshdel, and Mina Ahmadi (May 2006). "Late complications of circumcision in Iran" (Abstract). Pediatric Surgery International 22 (5): 442–445. doi:10.1007/s00383-006-1672-1. PMID 16649052. Retrieved on 2006-07-02. 81. ^ Angel, Carlos A. (June 12, 2006). "Meatal Stenosis". eMedicine. WebMD. Retrieved on 2006-07-02. 82. ^ "Complications Of Circumcision". Paediatric Policy – Circumcision. The Royal Australasian College of Physicians (October 2004). Retrieved on 2006-07-11. 83. ^ Paediatric Death Review Committee: Office of the Chief Coroner of Ontario (April 2007). "Coroner's Corner Circumcision: A minor procedure?". Paediatric Child Health Vol 12 No 4, April 2007 pages 311–312. Pulsus Group Inc.. Retrieved on 2007-06-17. 84. ^ Gairdner, Douglas (December 1949). "The Fate of the Foreskin". British Medical Journal 2 (4642): 1433–1437. PMID 15408299. Retrieved on 2006-07-01. 85. ^ "Male Circumcision and Risk for HIV Transmission and Other Health Conditions: Implications for the United States". Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2008). 86. ^ "WHO and UNAIDS Secretariat welcome corroborating findings of trials assessing impact of male circumcision on HIV risk". World Health Organization (February 23, 2007). Retrieved on 2007-02-23. 87. ^ Bailey, R.C.; S. Moses, C.B. Parker, K. Agot, I. Maclean, J.N. Krieger, C.F.M. Williams, R.T. Campbell, J.O. Ndinya-Achola (February 24, 2007). "Male circumcision for HIV prevention in young men in Kisumu, Kenya: a randomised controlled trial" (PDF). The Lancet 369 (9562): 643–656. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(07)60312-2. PMID 17321310. Retrieved on 2007-04-01. 88. ^ a b c d e f "WHO and UNAIDS announce recommendations from expert consultation on male circumcision for HIV prevention". World Health Organisation (March 2007). 89. ^ "Male circumcision: Global trends and determinants of prevalence, safety and acceptability". World Health Organisation/UNAIDS (February 2007). 90. ^ Weiss, HA; Quigley MA, Hayes RJ. (Oct 20 2000). "Male circumcision and risk of HIV infection in sub-Saharan Africa: a systematic review and meta-analysis.". AIDS. 2000 14 (15): 2361–70. Retrieved on 2007-12-27. “Male circumcision is associated with a significantly reduced risk of HIV infection among men in sub-Saharan Africa, particularly those at high risk of HIV. These results suggest that consideration should be given to the acceptability and feasibility of providing safe services for male circumcision as an additional HIV prevention strategy in areas of Africa where men are not traditionally circumcised.” 91. ^ Siegfried, N; M Muller, J Volmink, J Deeks, M Egger, N Low, H Weiss, S Walker, P Williamson (2003). "Male circumcision for prevention of heterosexual acquisition of HIV in men". Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD003362. CD003362. Retrieved on 2007-12-27. “We found insufficient evidence to support an interventional effect of male circumcision on HIV acquisition in heterosexual men. The results from existing observational studies show a strong epidemiological association between male circumcision and prevention of HIV, especially among high-risk groups. However, observational studies are inherently limited by confounding which is unlikely to be fully adjusted for. In the light of forthcoming results from RCTs, the value of IPD analysis of the included studies is doubtful. The results of these trials will need to be carefully considered before circumcision is implemented as a public health intervention for prevention of sexually transmitted HIV.” 92. ^ McCoombe SG, Cameron PU, Short RV (July 7, 2002). "The distribution of HIV-1 target cells and keratin in the human penis." (Abstract). International AIDS Society. Retrieved on 2006-07-09. 93. ^ Szabo, R.; R.V. Short (June 2000). "How does male circumcision protect against HIV infection?". BMJ 320: 1592-1594. 94. ^ Carael, M.; P.H. Van de Perre, P.H. Lepage, S. Allen, F. Nsengumuremyi, C. Van Goethem, M. Ntahorutaba, D. Nzaramba, N. Clumeck (June 1988). "Human immunodeficiency virus transmission among heterosexual couples in Central Africa.". AIDS 2 (3): 201-205. PMID 3134914. 95. ^ Grosskurth, H.; F. Mosha, J. Todd, K. Senkoro, J. Newell, A. Klokke, J. Changalucha, B. West, P. Mayaud, A. Gavyole A, et al. (August 1995). "A community trial of the impact of improved sexually transmitted disease treatment on the HIV epidemic in rural Tanzania: 2. Baseline survey results.". AIDS 9 (8): 927-934. PMID 7576329. 96. ^ Barongo, L.R.; M.W. Borgdorff, F.F. Mosha, A. Nicoll, H. Grosskurth, K.P. Senkoro, J.N. Newell, J. Changalucha, A.H. Klokke, J.Z. Killewo JZ, et al. (December 1992). "The epidemiology of HIV-1 infection in urban areas, roadside settlements and rural villages in Mwanza Region, Tanzania.". AIDS 6 (12): 1521-1528. PMID 1492935. 97. ^ Mills, J.; N. Siegfried (October 2006). "Cautious optimism for new HIV/AIDS prevention strategies.". Lancet 368 (9543): 1236. PMID 17027724. 98. ^ Dowsett, G.W.; M. Couch (May 2007). "Male circumcision and HIV prevention: is there really enough of the right kind of evidence?". Reproductive Health Matters 15 (29): 33-44. PMID 17512372. 99. ^ Weiss, HA; Thomas, SL; Munabi SK; Hayes RJ (Apr 2006). "Male circumcision and risk of syphilis, chancroid, and genital herpes: a systematic review and meta-analysis". Sex Transm Infect 82 (2): 101–9. doi:10.1136/sti.2005.017442. PMID 16581731. 100. ^ Fergusson, DM; JM Lawton and FT Shannon (April 1988). "Neonatal circumcision and penile problems: an 8-year longitudinal study". Pediatrics 81 (4): 537–541. PMID 3353186. Retrieved on 2007-07-18. 101. ^ Fakjian, N; S Hunter, GW Cole and J Miller (August 1990). "An argument for circumcision. Prevention of balanitis in the adult". Arch Dermatol 126 (8): 1046–7. doi:10.1001/archderm.126.8.1046. PMID 2383029. 102. ^ Herzog, LW; SR Alvarez (March 1986). "The frequency of foreskin problems in uncircumcised children". Am J Dis Child 140 (3): 254–6. PMID 3946358. 103. ^ O’Farrel, Nigel; Maria Quigley and Paul Fox (August 2005). "Association between the intact foreskin and inferior standards of male genital hygiene behaviour: a cross-sectional study" (Abstract). International Journal of STD & AIDS 16 (8): 556–588(4). doi:10.1258/0956462054679151. PMID 16105191. Retrieved on 2006-08-20. 104. ^ Birley (October 1993). "Clinical Features and management of recurrent balanitis; association with atopy and genital washing". Genitourinary Medicine 69 (5): 400–403. doi:10.1136/jme.2002.001313. PMID 8244363. Retrieved on 2008-04-12. 105. ^ Osipov, Vladimir O.; Scott M. Acker (November 14, 2006). "Balanoposthitis". Reactive and Inflammatory Dermatoses. EMedicine. Retrieved on 2006-11-20. 106. ^ Castellsagué, Xavier; et al. (April 11, 2002). "Male circumcision, penile human papillomavirus infection, and cervical cancer" (PDF — free registration required). The New England Journal of Medicine 346 (15): 1105–1112. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa011688. PMID 11948269. Retrieved on 2006-07-09. 107. ^ Lajous, Martín; Nancy Mueller, Aurelio Cruz-Valdéz, Luis Victor Aguilar, Silvia Franceschi, Mauricio Hernández-Ávila, and Eduardo Lazcano-Ponce (July 2005). "Determinants of Prevalence, Acquisition, and Persistence of Human Papillomavirus in Healthy Mexican Military Men" (PDF). Cancer Epidemiology Biomarkers and Prevention 14 (7): 1710–1716. doi:10.1158/1055-9965.EPI-04-0926. PMID 16030106. Retrieved on 2006-07-09. 108. ^ Hernandez, B.Y.; L.R. Wilkens, X. Zhu, K. McDuffie, P. Thompson, Y.B. Shvetsov, L. Ning and M.T. Goodman (2008 March). "Circumcision and Human Papillomavirus Infection in Men: A Site-Specific Comparison". The Journal of Infectious Diseases 197 (6): 787–794. doi:10.1086/528379. PMID 18284369. 109. ^ Aynaud, O.; D. Piron, G. Bijaoui, and JM Casanova (1999 July). "Developmental factors of urethral human papillomavirus lesions: correlation with circumcision" (PDF). BJU International 84 (1): 57–60. doi:10.1046/j.1464-410x.1999.00104.x. PMID 10444125. Retrieved on 2006-07-09. 110. ^ Dinh, T.H.; M. Sternberg, E.F. Dunne and L.E. Markowitz (April 2008). "Genital Warts Among 18- to 59-Year-Olds in the United States, National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 1999-2004". Sexually Transmitted Diseases 35 (4): 357–360. doi:10.1097/OLQ.0b013e3181632d61. PMID 18360316. “The percentage of circumcised men reporting a diagnosis of genital warts was significantly higher than uncircumcised men, 4.5% (95% CI, 3.6%–5.6%) versus 2.4% (95% CI, 1.5%–4.0%)” 111. ^ Singh-Grewal, D.; J. Macdessi, and J. Craig (August 1, 2005). "Circumcision for the prevention of urinary tract infection in boys: a systematic review of randomised trials and observational studies" (PDF). Archives of Disease in Childhood 90 (8): 853–858. doi:10.1136/adc.2004.049353. PMID 15890696. Retrieved on 2006-09-21. 112. ^ Maden, C; et al (Jan 1993). "History of circumcision, medical conditions, and sexual activity and risk of penile cancer". J Natl Cancer Inst 85 (1): 19–24. doi:10.1093/jnci/85.1.19. PMID 8380060. 113. ^ Schoen, EJ; Oehrli, M; Colby, C; Machin, G (Mar 2000). "The highly protective effect of newborn circumcision against invasive penile cancer". Pediatrics 105 (3): e36. doi:10.1542/peds.105.3.e36. 114. ^ "Can Penile Cancer be Prevented?". 115. ^ "Circumcision Information for Parents". American Academy of Pediatrics (2001). 116. ^ Task Force on Circumcision (March 1, 1999). "Circumcision Policy Statement" (PDF). Pediatrics 103 (3): 686–693. doi:10.1542/peds.103.3.686. ISSN 0031-4005 PMID 10049981. Retrieved on 2006-07-01. “Existing scientific evidence demonstrates potential medical benefits of newborn male circumcision; however, these data are not sufficient to recommend routine neonatal circumcision. In the case of circumcision, in which there are potential benefits and risks, yet the procedure is not essential to the child’s current well-being, parents should determine what is in the best interest of the child. To make an informed choice, parents of all male infants should be given accurate and unbiased information and be provided the opportunity to discuss this decision. It is legitimate for parents to take into account cultural, religious, and ethnic traditions, in addition to the medical factors, when making this decision. Analgesia is safe and effective in reducing the procedural pain associated with circumcision; therefore, if a decision for circumcision is made, procedural analgesia should be provided. If circumcision is performed in the newborn period, it should only be done on infants who are stable and healthy.” 117. ^ "Circumcision: Position Paper on Neonatal Circumcision". American Academy of Family Physicians (2007). Retrieved on 2007-01-30. “Considerable controversy surrounds neonatal circumcision. Putative indications for neonatal circumcision have included preventing UTIs and their sequelae, preventing the contraction of STDs including HIV, and preventing penile cancer as well as other reasons for adult circumcision. Circumcision is not without risks. Bleeding, infection, and failure to remove enough foreskin occur in less than 1% of circumcisions. Evidence-based complications from circumcision include pain, bruising, and meatitis. More serious complications have also occurred. Although numerous studies have been conducted to evaluate these postulates, only a few used the quality of methodology necessary to consider the results as high level evidence.
The evidence indicates that neonatal circumcision prevents UTIs in the first year of life with an absolute risk reduction of about 1% and prevents the development of penile cancer with an absolute risk reduction of less than 0.2%. The evidence suggests that circumcision reduces the rate of acquiring an STD, but careful sexual practices and hygiene may be as effective. Circumcision appears to decrease the transmission of HIV in underdeveloped areas where the virus is highly prevalent. No study has systematically evaluated the utility of routine neonatal circumcision for preventing all medically-indicated circumcisions in later life. Evidence regarding the association between cervical cancer and a woman’s partner being circumcised or uncircumcised, and evidence regarding the effect of circumcision on sexual functioning is inconclusive. If the decision is made to circumcise, anesthesia should be used.
The American Academy of Family Physicians recommends physicians discuss the potential harms and benefits of circumcision with all parents or legal guardians considering this procedure for their newborn son.” 118. ^ American Urological Association. "Circumcision". Retrieved on 2007-08-26. 119. ^ Medical Ethics Committee (June 2006). "The law and ethics of male circumcision – guidance for doctors". British Medical Association. Retrieved on 2006-07-01. “Circumcision for medical purposes Unnecessarily invasive procedures should not be used where alternative, less invasive techniques, are equally efficient and available. It is important that doctors keep up to date and ensure that any decisions to undertake an invasive procedure are based on the best available evidence. Therefore, to circumcise for therapeutic reasons where medical research has shown other techniques to be at least as effective and less invasive would be unethical and inappropriate. Male circumcision in cases where there is a clear clinical need is not normally controversial. Nevertheless, normal anatomical and physiological characteristics of the infant foreskin have in the past been misinterpreted as being abnormal. The British Association of Paediatric Surgeons advises that there is rarely a clinical indication for circumcision. Doctors should be aware of this and reassure parents accordingly.
Non-therapeutic circumcision Male circumcision that is performed for any reason other than physical clinical need is termed non-therapeutic (or sometimes “ritual”) circumcision. Some people ask for non-therapeutic circumcision for religious reasons, some to incorporate a child into a community, and some want their sons to be like their fathers. Circumcision is a defining feature of some faiths. There is a spectrum of views within the BMA’s membership about whether non-therapeutic male circumcision is a beneficial, neutral or harmful procedure or whether it is superfluous, and whether it should ever be done on a child who is not capable of deciding for himself. The medical harms or benefits have not been unequivocally proven except to the extent that there are clear risks of harm if the procedure is done inexpertly. The Association has no policy on these issues. Indeed, it would be difficult to formulate a policy in the absence of unambiguously clear and consistent medical data on the implications of the intervention. As a general rule, however, the BMA believes that parents should be entitled to make choices about how best to promote their children’s interests, and it is for society to decide what limits should be imposed on parental choices.” 120. ^ "Doctors back call for circumcision ban", ABC News (2007-12-09). 121. ^ Immerman, R.S.; W.C. Mackey (Fall-Winter 1997). "A biocultural analysis of circumcision". Social Biology 44 (3-4): 265–275. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9744.1976.tb00285.x. PMID 9446966. }} 122. ^ Tomb artwork from the Sixth Dynasty (2345–2181 BCE) shows men with circumcised penises, and one relief from this period shows the rite being performed on a standing adult male. The Egyptian hieroglyph for "penis" depicts either a circumcised or an erect organ. The examination of Egyptian mummies has found some with foreskins and others who were circumcised. 123. ^ The Book of Jeremiah, written in the sixth century BCE, lists the Egyptians, Jews, Edomites, Ammonites, and Moabites as circumcising cultures. Herodotus, writing in the fifth century BCE, would add the Colchians, Ethiopians, Phoenicians, and Syrians to that list. 124. ^ The writer of the 1 Maccabees wrote that under the Seleucids, many Jewish men attempted to hide or reverse their circumcision so they could exercise in Greek gymnasia, where nudity was the norm. First Maccabees also relates that the Seleucids forbade the practice of brit milah (Jewish circumcision), and punished those who performed it–as well as the infants who underwent it–with death. 125. ^ a b c d Gollaher, David (Fall 1994). "From ritual to science: the medical transformation of circumcision in America". Journal of Social History 28 (1): 5–36. Retrieved on 2007-12-06. 126. ^ "On the influence of circumcision in preventing syphilis" (1855). Medical Times and Gazette NS Vol II: 542–3. 127. ^ Pang, MG; Kim DS (2002). "Extraordinarily high rates of male circumcision in South Korea: history and underlying causes". BJU Int 89 (1): 48–54. doi:10.1046/j.1464-410X.2002.02545.x. 128. ^ Williams, N; L. Kapila (October 1993). "Complications of circumcision". British Journal of Surgery 80 (10): 1231–1236. doi:10.1002/bjs.1800801005. Retrieved on 2006-07-11. 129. ^ Crawford DA. Circumcision: a consideration of some of the controversy. J Child Health Care. 2002 December;6(4):259–70. PMID 12503896 130. ^ Klavs I, Hamers FF (February 2008). "Male circumcision in Slovenia: results from a national probability sample survey". Sex Transm Infect 84 (1): 49–50. doi:10.1136/sti.2007.027524. PMID 17881413. 131. ^ a b Drain, PK; et al (November 2006). "Male circumcision, religion, and infectious diseases: an ecologic analysis of 118 developing countries". BMC Infect Dis 30 (6): 172. doi:10.1186/1471-2334-6-172. PMID 17137513. Retrieved on 2008-04-25. 132. ^ a b c d Castellsagué, X; et al (2002). "Male circumcision, penile human papillomavirus infection, and cervical cancer in female partners". N Engl J Med 346 (15): 1105–12. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa011688. PMID 11948269. 133. ^ Frisch, M; et al (1995). "Falling incidence of penis cancer in an uncircumcised population (Denmark 1943-90)". BMJ 311: 1471. PMID 8520335. 134. ^ Schoen, E J; Colby, C J; Trinh, T To (2006). "Cost analysis of neonatal circumcision in a large health maintenance organization". J Urol 175: 1111–1115. doi:10.1016/S0022-5347(05)00399-X. 135. ^ Ko, MC; et al (April 2007). "Age-specific prevalence rates of phimosis and circumcision in Taiwanese boys". J Formos Med Assoc 106 (4): 302–7. PMID 17475607. “… the prevalence of circumcision slightly increased with age from 7.2% (95% CI, 5.3-10.8%) for boys aged 7 years to 8.7% (95% CI, 6.5-13.3%) for boys aged 13 years.” 136. ^ "In Australia and New Zealand, the circumcision rate has fallen considerably in recent years and it is estimated that currently only 10%-20% of male infants are routinely circumcised." (RACP: 2004) 137. ^ Richters, J; et al. (2006). "Circumcision in Australia: prevalence and effects on sexual health". Int J STD AIDS 17: 547–554. doi:10.1258/095646206778145730. PMID 16925903. “Neonatal circumcision was routine in Australia until the 1970s … In the last generation, Australia has changed from a country where most newborn boys are circumcised to one where circumcision is the minority experience.” 138. ^ Dave, SS; et al (2003). "Male circumcision in Britain: findings from a national probability sample survey". Sex Transm Infect 79: 499–500. doi:10.1136/sti.79.6.499.
[edit] External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Circumcision
[edit] Circumcision opposition
* The Circumcision Information and Resource Pages by Geoffrey T. Falk * Doctors Opposing Circumcision presided by George C. Denniston, MD, MPH * National Organization of Circumcision Information Resource Centers by Marilyn Milos, RN * Sex as Nature Intended It by Kristen O'Hara.
[edit] Circumcision promotion
* Jewish Circumcision – Brit Milah Chabad.org * Benefits of circumcision: medical, health and sexual by Professor Brian Morris * Circumcision: a lifetime of medical benefits by Edgar Schoen, BSc., M.D.
[edit] Circumcision techniques
* Description of an adult circumcision from the American Academy of Family Physicians. * Visualisation of amount of skin removed, showing 'styles' of circumcision. * Video demonstration of infant circumcision using a Gomco clamp.
[hide] v • d • e Urogenital surgical and other procedures (ICD-9-CM V3 55-71) Urinary system kidney: Nephrostomy - Nephrectomy - Kidney transplantation - Nephropexy
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vagina: Colposcopy - Culdocentesis - Hymenotomy - Vaginectomy vulva: Female genital cutting - Vulvectomy Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circumcision" Categories: All pages needing factual verification | Circumcision | Body modification | Penis | Sexuality | Surgical removal procedures Hidden categories: Pages with DOIs broken since 2008 | NPOV disputes from June 2008 | All pages needing cleanup | Wikipedia articles needing factual verification since November 2007 | All articles with unsourced statements | Articles with unsourced statements since February 2008 Views
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Kim Jong-il From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia (Redirected from Kim jong il) Jump to: navigation, search Semi-protected
This is a Korean name; the family name is Kim.
"Dear Leader" redirects here. For the band, see Dear Leader (band). For other heads of state, see List of current heads of state and government. Kim Jong-il 김정일 Kim Jong-il Chairman of the National Defense Commission of North Korea "Highest Post" since 5 September 1998 Incumbent Assumed office 9 April 1993 President Kim Yong-nam Premier Hong Song-nam Pak Pong-ju Kim Yong-il Preceded by Kim Il-sung Supreme Commander of the Korean People's Army Incumbent Assumed office July 1994 Preceded by Kim Il-sung General Secretary of the Workers' Party of Korea Incumbent Assumed office 8 October 1997 Preceded by Kim Il-sung Born 16 February 1941 (1941-02-16) (age 67) Vyatskoye, Soviet Union (Soviet records) 16 February 1942 (1942-02-16) (age 66) Mt. Baekdu, Japanese Korea (North Korean records) Nationality North Korean Political party Workers' Party of Korea Religion Atheist Kim Jong-il Chosŏn'gŭl 김정일 Hancha 金正日 McCune- Reischauer Kim Chŏngil Revised Romanization Kim Jeong(-)il
Kim Jong-il (also written as Kim Jong Il) (born February 16, 1941, Vyatskoye, Soviet Union; official biographies state February 16, 1942, Baekdu Mountain, Japanese Korea) is the leader of the Democratic People's Republic of Korea. He is the Chairman of the National Defense Commission, Supreme Commander of the Korean People's Army, and General Secretary of the Workers' Party of Korea (the ruling party since 1948). He succeeded his father Kim Il-sung, founder of North Korea, who died in 1994, and commands the fourth largest standing army in the world. North Korea officially refers to him as the "Dear Leader".
There are a number of disputes among historians in regard to events in Kim Jong-il's life. These relate to his alleged cult of personality, which is discussed here. Contents [hide]
* 1 Childhood o 1.1 Birth o 1.2 Education * 2 Early political career (1964-1979) * 3 Presidium member and party secretary (1980-1994) * 4 Ruler of North Korea o 4.1 Economic policies o 4.2 Foreign relations o 4.3 Internal politics * 5 Cult of personality * 6 Personal life * 7 Fictional portrayals * 8 See also * 9 Notes and references * 10 Further reading * 11 External links
Childhood
Birth Three-year-old Kim Jong-il with his father Kim Il-sung and mother Kim Jong-suk in 1945. Three-year-old Kim Jong-il with his father Kim Il-sung and mother Kim Jong-suk in 1945.
Kim Jong-il's official biography [1] states that he was born in a secret military camp on Baekdu Mountain (백두산) in northern Korea on February 16, 1942[2]. Official biographers claim that his birth at Baekdu Mountain was foretold by a swallow, and heralded by the appearance of a double rainbow over the mountain and a new star in the heavens. However, Soviet records show he was born in the village of Vyatskoye, near Khabarovsk, in 1941[3] where his father, Kim Il-sung, commanded the 1st Battalion of the Soviet 88th Brigade, made up of Chinese and Korean exiles.
Kim Jong-il's mother, Kim Jong-suk, was Kim Il-sung's first wife. During his youth in the Soviet Union, Kim Jong-il was known as Yuri Irsenovich Kim (Юрий Ирсенович Ким), taking his patronymic from his father's Russified name, Ir-sen.
In 1945, Kim was three years old when World War II ended and Korea regained independence from Japan. His father returned to Pyongyang that September, and in late November Kim returned to Korea via a Soviet ship, landing at Sonbong (선봉군, also Unggi). The family moved into a former Japanese officer's mansion in Pyongyang, with a garden and pool. Kim Jong-il's brother, "Shura" Kim (the first Kim Jong-il, but known by his Russian nickname), drowned there in 1948. In 1949, his mother died in childbirth.[4]
Education
According to his official biography, Kim completed the course of general education between September 1950 and August 1960. He attended Primary School No. 4 and Middle School No. 1 in Pyongyang.[5] This is contested by foreign academics, who believe he is more likely to have received his early education in the People's Republic of China as a precaution to ensure his safety during the Korean War.[6]
Throughout his schooling, Kim was involved in politics. He was active in the Childrens' Union[7] and Democratic Youth League (DYL), taking part in study groups of Marxist political theory and other literature. In September 1957 he became vice-chairman of his middle school's DYL branch. He pursued a programme of anti-factionalism and attempted to encourage greater ideological education among his classmates. He organized academic competitions and seminars, as well as helping to arrange field trips.
During his youth Kim's interests included music, agriculture and automotive repair. At school he repaired trucks and electric motors in a practice workshop, and he often visited factories and farms with his classmates.[8]
Kim Jong Il began studying at Kim Il Sung University in September 1960, majoring in Marxist political economy. His minor subjects included philosophy and military science. While at university, he also undertook production training at Pyongyang Textile Machinery Factory, as a road-working apprentice and as a worker building TV broadcasting equipment.
Kim joined the Workers' Party of Korea in July 1961. He began accompanying his father in "tours of field guidance", which consisted of visits to factories, farms and workplaces around the country.
Kim graduated from Kim Il Sung University in April 1964.[9]
Kim is also said to have received English language education at the University of Malta in the early 1970s, on his infrequent holidays in Malta as guest of Prime Minister Dom Mintoff.[10]
The elder Kim had meanwhile remarried and had another son, Kim Pyong-il (named after Kim Jong-il's drowned brother). Since 1988, Kim Pyong-il has served in a series of North Korean embassies in Europe and is currently the North Korean ambassador to Poland. Foreign commentators suspect that Kim Pyong-il was sent to these distant posts by his father in order to avoid a power struggle between his two sons.[11]
Early political career (1964-1979) North Korea
This article is part of the series: Politics and government of North Korea
* Constitution * Juche
* Eternal President: Kim Il-sung * National Defense Commission o Chairman: Kim Jong-il * Government o Premier: Kim Yong-il * Supreme People's Assembly o President: Kim Yong-nam
* Subdivisions * Judiciary * Political parties o Workers' Party of Korea * Elections: 2003, 2008
* Korean reunification * Human rights * Foreign relations * Songun policy
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After graduating in 1964, Kim Jong-il began his ascension through the ranks of the ruling Korean Workers' Party (KWP). His entrance to politics was met by the tensions within the global communist movement caused by the Sino-Soviet split. Still following Marxism-Leninism as their core ideology, the KWP had launched an offensive against elements within the party deemed revisionist. Dubbed "anti-Party revisionists", senior cadre had spread feudal Confucian ideas, attempted to water down the party's revolutionary line and ignored orders from General Secretary Kim Il-sung.
Shortly after his graduation, Kim was appointed instructor and section chief to the Party Central Committee. His first activities were undertaking parts of the WPK offensive. He agitated amongst officials to ensure party activities did not deviate from the ideological line set by Kim-Il sung, and worked to reveal anti-Party revisionists. He also put in place measures to ensure the Party's idealogical system was rigidly enforced among the media, writers and artists.[12]
During the late 1960s, Kim wrote a number of discourses on economics. He rallied against moves to make material incentive the primary force behind economic development, and toured the country giving guidance on technical restructuring occurring within industry at the time.[13]
Between 1967-1969, Kim turned his attention to the military. He believed bureaucrats within the Korean People's Army (KPA) were oppressing the Army's political organizations and distorting state orders. Kim decided these elements posed a threat to the WPK's control of the military. At the Fourth Plenary Meeting of the Fourth Party Committee of the KPA, he exposed certain officers believed to be responsible, who were subsequently expelled.[14]
During his early years in the Party Central Committee, Kim also oversaw activities of the Propaganda and Agitation Department, in which he worked to revolutionize the Korean fine arts. Artists were encouraged to create works new in content and form, produced by new systems and methods, and abandoning old traditions in the Korean arts.
Kim's theory was that film combined a number of artistic forms, and therefore the development of Korean cinema would in turn develop other artistic spheres. This began with film adaptations for Kim Il-sung's works written during World War II, beginning with Five Guerrilla Brothers in 1967. In the early 1970s, operatic adaptations of Kim Il-sung's works began.[15]
Kim was appointed vice-director of the Party Central Committee (PCC) in September 1970, and became an elected member of the PCC in October 1972. By 1973 he was made secretary.[16]
During the early 1970s, Kim worked to eliminate bureaucracy and encourage political activity amongst the people by Party officials. This included a policy forcing bureaucrats to work among workers at the next subordinate level for 20 days per month.[17]
In February 1974, Kim Jong-il was elected to the Political Committee of the PCC. By this time he had acquired the nicknames of "dear leader" and "intelligent leader", according to his official biography.[18]
That same year, Kim launched the Three-revolution Team Movement. Described as "a new method of guiding the revolution", the movement introduced teams which travelled around the country providing political, scientific and technical training through short courses. The expertise gained was continually developed through mass meetings in which knowledge could be shared.
Kim also led the shock-brigade movement of scientists and technicians - a similar initiative for new scientific research.[19]
During the late 1970s, Kim was involved in economic planning, including several campaigns to rapidly develop certain sectors of the economy.[20] He worked on initiatives to build mass political movements within the military, including the Three Revolution Red Flag Movement, Red Flag Company Movement and the Red Flag Vanguard Company Movement.[21]
He was also active in efforts to build a campaign for the reunification of Korea. This included assisting in the formation of the International Liaison Committee for the Independent and Peaceful Reunification of Korea in 1977, attending talks between political parties and groups within the DPRK, and taking part in high-level negotiations between the DPRK and Republic of Korea.[22]
Presidium member and party secretary (1980-1994)
By the time of the Sixth Party Congress in October 1980, Kim Jong-il's control of the Party operation was complete. He was given senior posts in the Politburo, the Military Commission and the party Secretariat. When he was made a member of the Seventh Supreme People's Assembly in February 1982, international observers deemed him the heir apparent of North Korea.
At this time Kim assumed the title "Dear Leader" (친애하는 지도자, ch'inaehanŭn chidoja)[23] the government began building a personality cult around him patterned after that of his father, the "Great Leader". Kim Jong-il was regularly hailed by the media as the "fearless leader" and "the great successor to the revolutionary cause". He emerged as the most powerful figure behind his father in North Korea.
On December 24, 1991, Kim was also named supreme commander of the North Korean armed forces. Since the Army is the real foundation of power in North Korea, this was a vital step. Defense Minister Oh Jin-wu, one of Kim Il-sung's most loyal subordinates, engineered Kim Jong-il's acceptance by the Army as the next leader of North Korea, despite his lack of military service. The only other possible leadership candidate, Prime Minister Kim Il (no relation), was removed from his posts in 1976. In 1992, Kim Il-sung publicly stated that his son was in charge of all internal affairs in the Democratic People's Republic.
In 1992, radio broadcasts started referring to him as the "Dear Father", instead of the "Dear Leader", suggesting a promotion. His 50th birthday was the occasion for massive celebrations, exceeded only by those for the 80th birthday of Kim Il Sung himself on April 15.
According to defector Hwang Jang-yop, the North Korean system became even more centralized and autocratic under Kim Jong-il than it had been under his father. Although Kim Il-sung required his ministers to be loyal to him, he nonetheless sought their advice in decision-making; Kim Jong-il demands absolute obedience and agreement, and views any deviation from his thinking as a sign of disloyalty. According to Hwang, Kim Jong-il personally directs even minor details of state affairs, such as the size of houses for party secretaries and the delivery of gifts to his subordinates.[24]
By the 1980s, North Korea began to experience severe economic stagnation. Kim Il-sung's policy of juche (self-reliance) cut the country off from almost all external trade, even with its traditional partners, the Soviet Union and China.
South Korea accused Kim of ordering the 1983 bombing in Rangoon, Burma (now Yangon, Myanmar), which killed 17 visiting South Korean officials, including four cabinet members, and another in 1987 which killed all 115 on board Korean Air Flight 858 [25]. A North Korean agent, Kim Hyon Hui, confessed to planting a bomb in the case of the second, saying the operation was ordered by Kim Jong-il personally [26].
In 1992, Kim Jong-il's voice was broadcast for the first and only time. During a military parade, he approached the microphone and said "Glory to the heroic soldiers of the People's Army!"
Ruler of North Korea
President Kim Il-sung died July 8, 1994, at age 82 of a heart attack. He was not replaced as President, and received the designation of "Eternal President", resting in the Kumsusan Memorial Palace in central Pyongyang. The active position has been abolished in deference to the memory of Kim Il-sung. Kim Jong-il officially took the titles of General Secretary of the Workers' Party of Korea and chairman of the National Defense Commission on October 8, 1997. In 1998, his Defense Commission position was declared to be "the highest post of the state", so Kim may be regarded as North Korea's head of state from that date. Since Kim is not the president, he is not constitutionally required to hold elections to confirm his legitimacy and has not done so.
Economic policies
North Korea's state-controlled economy struggled throughout the 1990s, primarily due to the loss of strategic trade arrangements with the USSR[27] and strained relations with China following China's normalization with South Korea in 1992.[28] In addition, North Korea experienced record-breaking floods (1995 and 1996) followed by several years of equally severe drought beginning in 1997.[29] This, compounded with only 18 percent arable land[30] and an inability to import the goods necessary to sustain industry,[31] led to an immense famine and left North Korea in economic shambles. Faced with a country in decay, Kim adopted a "Military-First" policy (선군정치, Sŏn'gun chŏngch'i) to strengthen the country and reinforce the regime.[32] On the national scale, this policy has produced a positive growth rate for the country since 1996, and the implementation of "landmark socialist-type market economic practices" in 2002 kept the North afloat despite a continued dependency on foreign aid for food.[33]
In the wake of the devastation of the 1990s, the government began formally approving some activity of small-scale bartering and trade. As observed by Daniel Sneider, associate director for research at Stanford's Asia-Pacific Research Center, this flirtation with capitalism is "fairly limited, but — especially compared to the past — there are now remarkable markets that create the semblance of a free market system."[34] In 2002, Kim Jong-il declared that "money should be capable of measuring the worth of all commodities."[35] These gestures toward economic reform mirror similar actions taken by China's Deng Xiaoping in the late 1980s and early 90s. During a rare visit in 2006, Kim expressed admiration for China's rapid economic progress.[36]
Foreign relations
In 1998, South Korean President Kim Dae-jung implemented the "Sunshine policy" (햇볕 정책, Haetpyŏt chŏngch'aek) to improve North-South relations and to allow South Korean companies to start projects in the North. Kim Jong-il announced plans to import and develop new technologies to develop North Korea's fledgling software industry. As a result of the new policy, the Kaesong Industrial Park was constructed in 2003 just north of the inter-Korean border, with the planned participation of 250 South Korean companies, employing 100,000 North Koreans, by 2007.[37] However, by March 2007, the Park contained only 21 companies - employing 12,000 North Korean workers.[38]
In 1994, North Korea and the United States signed an Agreed Framework which was designed to freeze and eventually dismantle the North's nuclear weapons program in exchange for aid in producing two power-generating nuclear reactors.[39] In 2002, Kim Jong-il's government admitted to having produced nuclear weapons since the 1994 agreement. Kim's regime argued the secret production was necessary for security purposes - citing the presence of United States owned nuclear weapons in South Korea and the new tensions with the U.S. under President George W. Bush.[40] On October 9, 2006, North Korea's Korean Central News Agency announced that it had successfully conducted an underground nuclear test.
Internal politics
North Korea remains silent on the issue of an appointed successor. South Korean media have suggested that he is grooming his son, Kim Jong-chul; however, Kim Yong Hyun, a political expert at the Institute for North Korean Studies at Seoul's Dongguk University, believes any appointee would be outside the family. "Even the North Korean establishment would not advocate a continuation of the family dynasty at this point."[41] His eldest son, Kim Jong-nam, was earlier believed to be the designated heir, but he appears to have fallen out of favor after being arrested at Narita International Airport in Narita, Japan, near Tokyo, in 2001 while traveling on a forged passport.[42]
Cult of personality
Critics maintain Kim Jong-il is the centre of an elaborate personality cult inherited from his father and founder of the DPRK, Kim Il-sung. Defectors have been quoted as saying that North Korean schools deify both father and son, teaching that they do not urinate or defecate like mortal humans.[43] He is often the centre of attention throughout ordinary life in the DPRK. His birthday is one of the most important public holidays in the country. On his 60th birthday (based on his official date of birth), mass celebrations occurred throughout the country.[44]
One point of view is that Kim Jong Il's cult of personality is solely out of respect for Kim Il-sung or out of fear of punishment for failure to pay homage.[45] Media and government sources from outside of North Korea generally tout this view,[46][47][48][49][50] while North Korean government sources claim that it is genuine hero worship.[51]
Personal life
There is no official information available about Kim Jong-il's marital history, but he is believed to have been officially married once, and that he has three mistresses:
* Kim married his first wife, Kim Young-suk, after being forced by his father to marry the daughter of a senior military official - the two have been estranged for some years. Kim has a daughter from this marriage, Kim Sul-song (born 1974).[52] * Kim's first mistress, Song Hye-rim, was not officially recognized and after years of estrangement she is believed to have died in Moscow in the Central Clinical Hospital in 2002. They had one son, Kim Jong-nam (born 1971) who is Kim Jong-il's eldest son. * His second mistress, Ko Young-hee, had taken over the role of First Lady until her death - reportedly of cancer - in 2004. They had two sons, Kim Jong-chul, in 1981, and Kim Jong-un (also "Jong Woon" or "Jong Woong"), in 1984.[52] * Since Ko's death, Kim has been living with Kim Ok, his third mistress, who had served as his personal secretary since the 1980s.[53]
Like his father, Kim has a fear of flying, and has always traveled by private armored train for state visits to Russia and China. The BBC reported that Konstantin Pulikovsky, a Russian emissary who traveled with Kim across Russia by train, told reporters that Kim had live lobsters air-lifted to the train every day, which he ate with silver chopsticks - historically used in the Chinese Forbidden City in the belief that they would detect poison.[54][55]
Kim is said to be a fan of luxury cars and has been known for racing his cars at his palaces. Kim had spent $20,000,000 on importing 200 new Mercedes Benz S500 luxury sedans adding to North Korea's fleet of 7,000 Mercedes cars.[citation needed] Kim is said to be a huge film buff, owning a collection of more than 20,000 video tapes.[56] His reported favorites are the Friday the 13th, Rambo, James Bond, and Godzilla series, as well as Hong Kong action cinema, and any movie with Elizabeth Taylor.[57] He is the author of the book On the Art of the Cinema. In 1978, on Kim's orders, South Korean film director Shin Sang-ok and his actress wife Choi Eun-hee were kidnapped in order to build a North Korean film industry.[58] In 2006 he was involved in the production of the Juche-based movie Diary of a Girl Student – depicting the life of a girl whose parents are scientists – with a KCNA news report stating that Kim "improved its script and guided its production".[59]
Kim reportedly also enjoys basketball. Former United States Secretary of State Madeleine Albright ended her summit with Kim by presenting him with a basketball signed by NBA legend Michael Jordan.[60] Also an apparent golfer, North Korean state media reports that Kim routinely shoots three or four holes-in-one per round.[61] His official biography also claims Kim has composed six operas and enjoys staging elaborate musicals.[62] Kim also refers to himself as an Internet expert.[63]
Defectors claim that Kim has 17 different palaces and residences, including a private resort near Paektu Mountain, a seaside lodge in the city of Wonsan, and a palace complex northeast of Pyongyang surrounded with multiple fence lines, bunkers, and anti-aircraft batteries.[64]
Fictional portrayals
Kim Jong-il is a popular target for parody and satire in many countries, especially in the United States. A parody appears regularly in comedian Jay Leno's "Celebrity Jeopardy!" sketch on The Tonight Show with Jay Leno, where he often feuds with a characterized George W. Bush. Comedian David Letterman refers to him as "Lil Kim" or "Ment-Ally Ill", and comedian Stephen Colbert often parodies him on The Colbert Report. Most prominently among pop cultural portrayals, he is cast in the movie Team America: World Police as a James Bond-style supervillain with a musical number, "I'm So Ronery."
See also
* List of Korea-related topics * North Korea
Notes and references
1. ^ http://www.korea-dpr.com/articles-ng/biography-kimjongil.htm 2. ^ Kim Jong Il - Short Biography. Pyongyang: Foreign Languages Press, 1998, p. 1. 3. ^ "Profile: Kim Jong-Il" BBC News. Ed. Steve Herrmann. 9 October 2006. Accessed 17 December 2007. 4. ^ "The Kims' North Korea", Asia Times, June 4, 2005. 5. ^ Kim Jong Il - Short Biography. Pyongyang: Foreign Languages Press, 1998, p. 5. 6. ^ Martin, Bradley K. (2004). Under the Loving Care of the Fatherly Leader, New York: St. Martin's Press. ISBN 0-312-32221-6 7. ^ Kim Jong Il - Short Biography. Pyongyang: Foreign Languages Press, 1998, p. 4. 8. ^ ibid, pp. 6-9. 9. ^ ibid, pp. 9-17 10. ^ "Kim is a baby rattling the sides of a cot", Guardian Unlimited, December 30, 2002. 11. ^ "Happy Birthday, Dear Leader - who's next in line?", Asia Times, February 14, 2004. 12. ^ Kim Jong Il - Short Biography. Pyongyang: Foreign Languages Press, 1998, pp. 18-23 13. ^ ibid, pp. 25-59 14. ^ ibid, pp. 24-25 15. ^ ibid, pp. 35-40 16. ^ ibid, p. 32 17. ^ ibid, p. 35 18. ^ ibid, p. 48 19. ^ ibid, pp. 61-66 20. ^ ibid, pp. 56-60 21. ^ ibid, p. 72 22. ^ ibid, pp. 72-75 23. ^ "North Korea's dear leader less dear", Fairfax Digital, November 19, 2004. 24. ^ Testimony of Hwang Jang-yop 25. ^ "North Korea: Nuclear Standoff", The Online NewsHour, PBS, October 19, 2006. 26. ^ "Fake ashes, very real North Korean sanctions", Asia Times Online, December 16, 2004. 27. ^ "Prospects for trade with an integrated Korean market", Agricultural Outlook, April, 1992. 28. ^ "Why South Korea Does Not Perceive China to be a Threat", China in Transition, April 18, 2003. 29. ^ "An Antidote to disinformation about North Korea", Global Research, December 28, 2005. 30. ^ "North Korea Agriculture", Federal Research Division of the Library of Congress, Retrieved March 11, 2007. 31. ^ "Other Industry - North Korean Targets" Federation of American Scientists, June 15, 2000. 32. ^ "North Korea’s Military Strategy", Parameters, US Army War College Quarterly, 2003. 33. ^ "Kim Jong-il's military-first policy a silver bullet", Asia Times Online, January 4, 2007. 34. ^ "North Korea's Capitalist Experiment", Council on Foreign Relations, June 8, 2006. 35. ^ "On North Korea's streets, pink and tangerine buses", Christian Science Monitor, June 2, 2005. 36. ^ "Inside North Korea: A Joint U.S.-Chinese Dialogue", United States Institute of Peace, January 2007. 37. ^ "Asan, KOLAND Permitted to Develop Kaesong Complex", The Korea Times, April 23, 2004. 38. ^ "S. Korea denies U.S. trade pact will exclude N. Korean industrial park", Yonhap News, March 7, 2007. 39. ^ "History of the 'Agreed Framework' and how it was broken", About: U.S. Gov Info/Resources, March 12, 2007. 40. ^ "Motivation Behind North Korea's Nuclear Confession", GLOCOM Platform, October 28, 2002. 41. ^ "North Korea silent over Kim Jong Il successor", India eNews, February 14, 2007. 42. ^ "Japan deports man claiming to be Kim Jong-Nam", ABC News:The World Today, May 4, 2001. 43. ^ Chol-hwan Kang and Pierre Rigoulot (2005). The Aquariums of Pyongyang: Ten Years in the North Korean Gulag, Basic Books. ISBN 0-465-01104-7 44. ^ BBC reporters. "North Korea marks leader's birthday", BBC News. Ed. Steve Herrmann. 16 February 2002. Accessed 18 December 2007. 45. ^ Alexandre Mansourov. "Korean Monarch Kim Jong Il: Technocrat Ruler of the Hermit Kingdom Facing the Challenge of Modernity" The Nautilus Institute. Accessed 18 December 2007. 46. ^ Charles Scanlon. "Nuclear deal fuels Kim's celebrations", BBC News. Ed. Steve Herrmann. 16 February 2007. Accessed 18 December 2007. 47. ^ Clifford Coonan. "Kim Jong Il, the tyrant with a passion for wine, women and the bomb", The Independent. Ed. Martin King. 21 October 2006. Accessed 18 December 2007. 48. ^ Richard Lloyd Parry. "'Dear Leader' clings to power while his people pay the price", Times Online. Ed. [online.editor@timesonline.co.uk]. 10 October 2006. Accessed 18 December 2007. 49. ^ Reuters reporters. "'North Korea's 'Dear Leader' flaunts nuclear prowess", New Zealand Herald. Ed. Tim Murphy. 10 October 2006. Accessed 18 December 2007. 50. ^ Compiled by the Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor. "Country Reports on Human Rights Practices" US Department of State. 25 February 2004. Accessed 18 December 2007 51. ^ Jason LaBouyer [http://www.korea-dpr.com/lodestar0605v.pdf "When friends become enemies - Understanding left-wing hostility to the DPRK" Lodestar. May/June 2005: pp. 7-9. Korea-DPR.com. Accessed on 18 December 2007. 52. ^ a b "The Kim family tree", Scripps News, February 2, 2007. 53. ^ "North Korea's New First Lady", All Headline News, June 23 2006. 54. ^ "Profile: Kim Jong-il", BBC News, July 31, 2003. 55. ^ Silver Chopsticks 56. ^ "North Korean leader loves Hennessey, Bond movies", CNN Washington, Jan. 8, 2003. 57. ^ "The Madness of Kim Jong Il", Guardian Unlimited, November 2, 2003. 58. ^ "Kidnapped by North Korea", BBC News, March 5, 2003. 59. ^ "Film 'Diary of a Girl Student', Close Companion of Life", Korea News Sercive, August 10, 2006. 60. ^ "The oddest fan", Union-Tribune, October 29, 2006. 61. ^ "Move over Tiger: N. Korea's Kim shot 38 under par his 1st time out", World Tribune, June 16, 2004. 62. ^ "Profile: Kim Jong-il", BBC News, June 9 2000. 63. ^ "North Korea Kim Jong Il an Internet Expert", FOX News, October 5 2007. 64. ^ "Kim Jong Il, Where He Sleeps and Where He Works", Daily NK, March 15, 2005.
Further reading
* Jasper Becker, "Rogue Regime: Kim John Il and the Looming Threat of North Korea", [1], Oxford University Press (October 2006), Softcover, 328 pages, ISBN 0-19-530891-3 * Michael Breen, Kim Jong-il: North Korea's Dear Leader, John Wiley and Sons (January, 2004), hardcover, 228 pages, ISBN 0-470-82131-0 * Bradley Martin, Under The Loving Care Of The Fatherly Leader: North Korea And The Kim Dynasty, St. Martins (October, 2004), hardcover, 868 pages, ISBN 0-312-32221-6 * Kim Chol U, Army-Centred Politics Of Kim Jong Il, Foreign Languages Publishing House, Pyongyang, North Korea, 2002, Softcover, 98 pages * Kim Jong Il Brief History, Foreign Languages Publishing House, Pyongyang, North Korea, 1998, Hardcover, 149 pages * Kim Jong Il Short Biography, Foreign Languages Publishing House, Pyongyang, North Korea, 2001, Hardcover, 215 pages * Pae Kyong Su, Kim Jong Il The Individual Thoughts And Leadership Vol. 1, Foreign Languages Publishing House, Pyongyang, North Korea, 1993, Softcover, 225 pages * Pae Kyong Su, Kim Jong Il The Individual Thoughts And Leadership Vol. 2, Foreign Languages Publishing House, Pyongyang, North Korea, 1995, Softcover, 164 pages * Nada Takashi, Korea In Kim Jong Il's Era, Foreign Languages Publishing House, Pyongyang, North Korea, 2000, Softcover, 163 pages * Li Il Bok, The Great Man Kim Jong Il, Foreign Languages Publishing House, Pyongyang, North Korea, 1989, Softcover, 167 pages * Ri Il Bok, The Great Man Kim Jong Il Vol. 2, Foreign Languages Publishing House, Pyongyang, North Korea, 1995, Softcover, 84 pages * Jo Song Baek, The Leadership Philosophy Of Kim Jong Il, Foreign Languages Publishing House, Pyongyang, North Korea, 1999, Softcover, 261 pages * Guiding Light General Kim Jong Il, Foreign Languages Publishing House, Pyongyang, North Korea, 1997, Softcover, 357 pages
External links Find more about Kim Jong-il on Wikipedia's sister projects: Dictionary definitions Textbooks Quotations Source texts Images and media News stories Learning resources
* Kim Jong Il: Brief HistoryPDF (893 KiB) – Foreign Languages Publishing House, Pyongyang DPR Korea (1998) * Born in the USSR – Kim Jong-il's childhood. * The many family secrets of Kim Jong Il * "Hidden Daughter" Visits Kim Jong-il Every Year (also includes photos of Kim during his youth) * (Korean) Kim's family tree
Persondata NAME Kim Jong-il ALTERNATIVE NAMES Yuri Irsenovich Kim, SHORT DESCRIPTION leader of Democratic People's Republic of Korea DATE OF BIRTH February 16, 1941 PLACE OF BIRTH village of Vyatskoye, near Khabarovsk DATE OF DEATH PLACE OF DEATH Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kim_Jong-il" Categories: Government of North Korea | North Korean politicians | Current national leaders | 1942 births | Living people | Korean communists Hidden categories: Semi-protected | All articles with unsourced statements | Articles with unsourced statements since February 2008 Views
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Robert Mugabe From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search Semi-protected "Mugabe" redirects here. For other uses, see Mugabe (disambiguation). President Robert Gabriel Mugabe Robert Mugabe
Mugabe at the African Union summit in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia on 31 January 2008. President of Zimbabwe Incumbent Assumed office 31 December 1987 Vice President Joseph Msika Joice Mujuru Preceded by Canaan Banana Prime Minister of Zimbabwe In office 18 April 1980 – 31 December 1987 President Canaan Banana Preceded by Abel Muzorewa (Zimbabwe Rhodesia) Succeeded by Post abolished Secretary General of Non-Aligned Movement In office 06 September 1986 – 07 September 1989 Succeeded by Janez Drnovšek Born 21 February 1924 (1924-02-21) (age 84) Kutama, Salisbury, Southern Rhodesia Political party ZANU-PF Spouse Sally Hayfron (deceased) Grace Marufu Alma mater University of Fort Hare University of London University of South Africa Religion Lapsed Catholic[citation needed] Signature Robert Mugabe's signature
Robert Gabriel Mugabe (born February 21, 1924) is the President of Zimbabwe. He has served as the head of government since 1980, as Prime Minister from 1980 to 1987 and as the first executive President since 1987.[1] Since the run-off election of 2008 his legitimacy as president has been called into question; the G8 nations released a statement in July saying they "do not accept the legitimacy of a government that does not reflect the will of the Zimbabwean people".[2] Mugabe is an outspoken, controversial and polarizing figure. His relationship with the former colonial power, the United Kingdom, has been particularly contentious; he is characterized as a violent dictator in the British press (a view held in many other countries), and he in turn denounces the British establishment as inveterate colonialists.
He rose to prominence in the 1960s as the Secretary general of the Zimbabwe African National Union (ZANU). For many years in the 60s and 70s Mugabe was a political prisoner in Rhodesia. His goal was to replace white minority-rule with a one-party Marxist regime.[3] He left Rhodesia in 1976 to join the Zimbabwe Liberation Struggle (Rhodesian Bush War) from bases in Mozambique. The war ended in 1979, emerging from this conflict, Mugabe was hailed by Africans as a hero.[4][5] He won the general elections of 1980, the first in which the majority black Africans participated, amid reports of violent intimidation by the militant freedom fighters he now controlled. Mugabe then became the first Prime Minister of black-ruled Zimbabwe after calling for reconciliation between formerly warring parties, including the white people as well as rival parties.
The early years of Mugabe's rule saw killings targeting the Ndebele tribe in the Matabeleland and Midlands areas of Zimbabwe. Since 1998 Mugabe's policies have increasingly elicited domestic and international denunciation. His government pursued a costly intervention in the Second Congo War, expropriated thousands of white-owned farms, printed hundreds of trillions of Zimbabwean dollars triggering hyperinflation,[6] and has been accused of harassing and intimidating political opponents, particularly members of the Movement for Democratic Change.[7] Zimbabwe's economy spiraled downward,[8] with food and oil shortages,[9] and with massive internal displacement[10] and emigration.[11] During this period Mugabe's policies have been denounced in the West and at home as racist against Zimbabwe's white minority.[12][13][14] Mugabe has described his critics as "born again colonialists",[15][16] and both he and his supporters claim Zimbabwe's problems are the legacy of imperialism,[17] aggravated by Western economic meddling.
Mugabe lost the first round of the 2008 election to opposition leader Morgan Tsvangirai, 43% to 48%, though neither candidate secured the 50% necessary to avoid a runoff election. The MDC claimed that the official results had been altered to force a run-off vote, since their returns suggested that Tsvangirai had received 50.3% of the vote.[18] Contents [hide]
* 1 Early life * 2 Early political career * 3 Lancaster House Agreement * 4 Prime Minister and President o 4.1 Gukurahundi o 4.2 Social programs o 4.3 Alleged racism o 4.4 Views on homosexuality o 4.5 Second Congo War o 4.6 Land reform o 4.7 Elections + 4.7.1 General elections 2008 # 4.7.1.1 First-round defeat and the campaign of violence # 4.7.1.2 The outcome of the run-off election o 4.8 Criticism and opposition o 4.9 Bans on travel in the E.U. and the U.S.A. + 4.9.1 Appearance at the FAO conference, June 2008 o 4.10 Succession * 5 Honours and revocations * 6 Personal life * 7 In fiction * 8 References o 8.1 Notes o 8.2 Bibliography * 9 External links
Early life
Mugabe was born in Matibiri village near Kutama Mission in the Zvimba District north east of Salisbury in Southern Rhodesia. He had two older brothers, and one of them, Michael, was very popular in the village. Both his older brothers died, leaving Robert and his younger brother, Donato.[19] His father, Gabriel Mugabe Matibiri, a carpenter,[8] abandoned the Mugabe family in 1934 after Michael died, in search of work in Bulawayo.[20] Mugabe was raised as a Roman Catholic, studying in Marist Brothers and Jesuit schools, including the exclusive Kutama College, headed by an Irish priest, Father Jerome O'Hea, who took him under his wing. Through his youth, Mugabe was never socially popular nor physically active and spent most of his time with the priests or his mother when he was not reading in the school's libraries. He was described as never playing with the other children but always enjoying his own company[8]. He qualified as a teacher, but left to study at Fort Hare in South Africa graduating in 1951 while meeting contemporaries such as Julius Nyerere, Herbert Chitepo, Robert Sobukwe and Kenneth Kaunda. He then studied at Oxford University in 1952, Salisbury (1953), Gwelo (1954), and Tanzania (1955–1957).
Originally graduating with a Bachelor of Arts degree from the University of Fort Hare in 1951, Mugabe subsequently earned six further degrees through distance learning including a Bachelor of Administration and Bachelor of Education from the University of South Africa and a Bachelor of Science, Bachelor of Laws, Master of Science and Master of Laws, all from the University of London External Programme.[21] The two Law degrees were taken whilst he was in prison, whilst the Master of Science degree was taken during his premiership of Zimbabwe.[22]
After graduating, Mugabe lectured at Chalimbana Teacher Training College, in Zambia from 1955–1958, thereafter he taught at Apowa Secondary School at Takoradi, in the Western Region of Ghana (1958 – 1960) where he met Sally Hayfron, who later became his first wife. During his stay in Ghana, he was influenced and inspired by Ghana's then-Prime Minister, Kwame Nkrumah. In addition, Mugabe and some of his Zimbabwe African National Union party cadres received instruction at the Kwame Nkrumah Ideological Institute, then at Winneba in southern Ghana.[23][24]
Early political career
Main article: History of Zimbabwe
Mugabe returned to Southern Rhodesia and joined the National Democratic Party (NDP) in 1960.[25] The administration of Prime Minister Ian Smith banned the NDP when it later became Joshua Nkomo's Zimbabwe African Peoples Union (ZAPU). Mugabe left ZAPU in 1963 to join the rival Zimbabwe African National Union (ZANU) which had been formed in 1963 by the Reverend Ndabaningi Sithole, Edgar Tekere, Edson Zvobgo, Enos Nkala and lawyer Herbert Chitepo. ZANU was influenced by the Africanist ideas of the Pan Africanist Congress in South Africa[26] and influenced by Maoism while ZAPU was an ally of the African National Congress and was a supporter of a more orthodox pro-Soviet line on national liberation. Similar divisions can also be seen in the liberation movement in Angola between the MPLA and UNITA. It would have been easy for the party to split along tribal lines between the Ndebele and Mugabe's own Shona tribe, but cross-tribal representation was maintained by his partners. ZANU leader Sithole nominated Robert Mugabe as his Secretary General.
In 1964 Mugabe was arrested for “subversive speech” and spent the next 10 years in Salisbury prison, which helps to explain why his hatred of European hegemony in Africa is so strong. During that period he earned three degrees, including a law degree from London and a bachelor of administration from the University of South Africa by correspondence courses. Smith did not allow Mugabe out of prison to attend the funeral of Mugabe's three-year-old son.[8] In 1974, while still in prison, Mugabe was elected -- with the powerful influence of Edgar Tekere -- to take over the reins of ZANU after a no-confidence vote was passed on Ndabaningi Sithole[27] - Mugabe himself abstained from voting. His time in prison burnished his reputation and helped his cause.[8]
Mugabe unilaterally assumed control of ZANU from Mozambique. Later that year, after squabbling with Ndabaningi Sithole, Mugabe formed a militant ZANU faction, leaving Sithole to lead the moderate Zanu (Ndonga) party. Many opposition leaders mysteriously died during this time, including one who allegedly died in a car crash although the car is rumored to have been found riddled with bullet holes.[8] Additionally, an opposing newspaper's printing press was bombed and its journalists tortured.[8]
Lancaster House Agreement
Main article: Lancaster House Agreement
Persuasion from B.J. Vorster, himself under pressure from Henry Kissinger, forced Ian Smith, the sitting prime minister at the time, to accept in principle that white minority rule could not continue indefinitely. On March 3, 1978 Bishop Abel Muzorewa, Ndabaningi Sithole and other moderate leaders signed an agreement at the Governor's Lodge in Salisbury, which paved the way for an interim power-sharing government, in preparation for elections. The elections were won by the United African National Council under Bishop Abel Muzorewa, but international recognition did not follow and sanctions were not lifted. The two 'Patriotic Front' groups under Mugabe and Joshua Nkomo refused to participate and continued the war.
The incoming government did accept an invitation to talks at Lancaster House in September 1979. A ceasefire was negotiated for the talks, which were attended by Smith, Mugabe, Nkomo, Edson Zvobgo and others. Eventually the parties to the talks agreed on a new constitution for a new Republic of Zimbabwe with elections in February 1980. The Lancaster Agreement saw Mugabe make two important and contentious concessions. First, he allowed 20 seats to be reserved for whites in the new Parliament, and second, he agreed to a ten year moratorium on constitutional amendments. His return to Zimbabwe in December 1979, following the completion of the Lancaster House Agreement, was greeted with enormous supportive crowds.
Prime Minister and President
After a campaign marked by intimidation from all sides, mistrust from security forces and reports of full ballot boxes found on the road, the Shona majority was decisive in electing Mugabe to head the first government as prime minister on 4 March 1980. ZANU won 57 out of 80 Common Roll seats in the new parliament, with the 20 white seats all going to the Rhodesian Front.
Mugabe, whose political support came from his Shona-speaking homeland in the north, attempted to build Zimbabwe on a basis of an uneasy coalition with his Zimbabwe African People's Union (ZAPU) rivals, whose support came from the Ndebele-speaking south, and with the white minority. Mugabe sought to incorporate ZAPU into his Zimbabwe African National Union (ZANU) led government and ZAPU's military wing into the army. ZAPU's leader, Joshua Nkomo, was given a series of cabinet positions in Mugabe's government. However, Mugabe was torn between this objective and pressures to meet the expectations of his own ZANU followers for a faster pace of social change.
In 1983, Mugabe fired Nkomo from his cabinet, triggering bitter fighting between ZAPU supporters in the Ndebele-speaking region of the country and the ruling ZANU. Mugabe accused the Ndebele tribe of plotting to overthrow him after sacking Nkomo. Between 1982 and 1985, the military crushed armed resistance from Ndebele groups in the provinces of Matabeleland and the Midlands, leaving Mugabe's rule secure. Mugabe has been accused by the BBC's Panorama programme of committing mass murder during this period of his rule.[28] A peace accord was negotiated in 1987.[29] ZAPU merged into the Zimbabwe African National Union-Patriotic Front (ZANU-PF) on December 22, 1988.[30] Mugabe brought Nkomo into the government once again as a vice-president.
In 1987, the position of Prime Minister was abolished and Mugabe assumed the new office of executive President of Zimbabwe gaining additional powers in the process. He was re-elected in 1990 and 1996, and in 2002 amid claims of widespread vote-rigging and intimidation. Mugabe's term of office expired at the end of March 2008.
Mugabe has been the Chancellor of the University of Zimbabwe since Parliament passed the University of Zimbabwe Amendment Bill in November 1990.[31]
Gukurahundi
Main article: Gukurahundi
More than 20,000 Ndebele civilians were killed by Mugabe's North-Korean trained 5th Brigade during the Gukurahundi (“the early rain that washes away the chaff”)[8] ethnic massacres.[32][33]Their leader was Perence Shiri who called himself 'Black Jesus'.[34] Mugabe is said to fear prosecution for this massacre, with bills calling for inquiries into the incident sometimes introduced into Parliament.[8] The opposition Movement for Democratic Change has said that if it comes to power, it will call for an international trial of the massacre.[8] Most of the 20,000 killed were innocent civilians.[35]
Social programs
According to a 1995 World Bank report, after independence, "Zimbabwe gave priority to human resource investments and support for smallholder agriculture," and as a result, "smallholder agriculture expanded rapidly during the first half of the 1980s and social indicators improved quickly." From 1980 to 1990 infant mortality decreased from 86 to 49 per 1000 live births, under five mortality was reduced from 128 to 58 per 1000 live births, and immunisation increased from 25% to 80% of the population. Also, "child malnutrition fell from 22% to 12% and life expectancy increased from 56 to 64. By 1990, Zimbabwe had a lower infant mortality rate, higher adult literacy and higher school enrollment rate than average for developing countries".[36]
In 1991, the government of Zimbabwe, short on hard currency and under international pressure, embarked on an austerity program. The World Bank's 1995 report explained that such reforms were required because Zimbabwe was unable to absorb into its labour market the many graduates from its impressive education system and that it needed to attract additional foreign investments. The reforms, however, undermined the livelihoods of Zimbabwe's poor majority; the report noted "large segments of the population, including most smallholder farmers and small scale enterprises, find themselves in a vulnerable position with limited capacity to respond to evolving market opportunities. This is due to their limited access to natural, technical and financial resources, to the contraction of many public services for smallholder agriculture, and to their still nascent links with larger scale enterprises."
Moreover, these people were forced to live on marginal lands as Zimbabwe's best lands were reserved for mainly white landlords growing cash crops for export, a sector of the economy favoured by the IMF's plan. For the poor on the communal lands, "existing levels of production in these areas are now threatened by the environmental fragility of the natural resource base and the unsustainability of existing farming practices".[36] The International Monetary Fund later suspended aid, saying reforms were "not on track."
According to the World Health Organisation (WHO), life expectancy at birth for Zimbabwean men is 37 years and is 34 years for women, the lowest such figures for any nation.[37] The World Bank's 1995 report predicted this decline in life expectancy from its 1990 height of 64 years when, commenting on health care system cuts mandated by the IMF structural adjustment programme, it stated that "The decline in resources is creating strains and threatening the sustainability of health sector achievements".[36]
The Zimbabwe dollar suffers from the highest Inflation rate of any currency in the world. Zimbabwe official statistics reveal that the annualised inflation rate for September 2006 was 1000%. The International Monetary Fund (IMF), in its World Economic Outlook database, reported inflation in 2006 at 1216%.[38] Inflation reached 9,000% on June 21, 2007,[39] and 11,000% on June 22, 2007.[40] It continues to climb rapidly, and was reported to exceed 100,000% as of April 2008,[41] and estimated to be 4,000,000% in June 2008. It is now estimated to reach 100,000,000 by September 2008.[42]
While Zimbabwe has suffered in many other measures under Mugabe, as a former schoolteacher he has been well-known for his commitment to education.[8] However, Catholic Archbishop of Zimbabwe Pius Ncube decried the educational situation in the country, saying, among other scathing indictments of Mugabe, "We had the best education in Africa and now our schools are closing".[43]
Alleged racism
A number of people have accused Mugabe of having racist attitude towards white people. John Sentamu, a Uganda-born Archbishop of York in the United Kingdom, calls Mugabe "the worst kind of racist dictator," for having "targeted the whites for their apparent riches".[44] Almost thirty years after ending white-minority rule in Zimbabwe, Mugabe accuses the United Kingdom of promoting white imperialism and regularly accuses opposition figures to his government of being allies of white imperialism.
Views on homosexuality
Mugabe has waged a violent campaign against homosexuals, arguing that before colonisation Zimbabweans did not engage in homosexual acts.[45] His first major public condemnation of homosexuality came in 1995 during the Zimbabwe International Book Fair in August 1995.[46] He told the audience that homosexuality:
"...Degrades human dignity. It's unnatural and there is no question ever of allowing these people to behave worse than dogs and pigs. If dogs and pigs do not do it, why must human beings? We have our own culture, and we must re-dedicate ourselves to our traditional values that make us human beings... What we are being persuaded to accept is sub-animal behaviour and we will never allow it here. If you see people parading themselves as lesbians and gays, arrest them and hand them over to the police!"[47]
In September 1995, Zimbabwe's parliament introduced legislation banning homosexual acts.[46] In 1997, a court found Canaan Banana, Mugabe's predecessor and the first President of Zimbabwe, guilty of 11 counts of sodomy and indecent assault.[48] Banana's trial proved embarrassing for Mugabe, when Banana's accusers alleged that Mugabe knew about Banana's conduct and had done nothing to stop it.[49]
Second Congo War
Mugabe was blamed for Zimbabwe's participation in the Second Congo War in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. At a time when the Zimbabwean economy was struggling, Zimbabwe responded to a call by the Southern African Development Community to help the struggling regime in Kinshasa. The Democratic Republic of the Congo had been invaded by Rwanda and Uganda, both of which claimed that their civilians, and regional stability, were under constant threat of attack by various terrorist groups based in the Congo.[50] However, the Congolese government, as well as international commentators, charged that the motive for the invasion was to grab the rich mineral resources of eastern Congo.[51][52] The war raised accusations of corruption, with officials alleged to be plundering the Congo's mineral reserves. Mugabe's defence minister Moven Mahachi said, "Instead of our army in the DRC burdening the treasury for more resources, which are not available, it embarks on viable projects for the sake of generating the necessary revenue".[53]
Land reform
Main article: Land reform in Zimbabwe
When Zimbabwe gained independence, 46.5% of the country's arable land was owned by around 6,000 commercial farmers.[54] Mugabe accepted a "willing buyer, willing seller" plan as part of the Lancaster House Agreement of 1979, among other concessions to the white minority.[55] As part of this agreement, land redistribution was blocked for a period of 10 years.[56]
In 1997, the new British government led by Tony Blair unilaterally stopped funding the "willing buyer, willing seller" land reform programme on the basis that the initial £44 million allocated under the Thatcher government was used to purchase land for members of the ruling elite rather than landless peasants. Furthermore, Britain's ruling Labour Party felt no obligation to continue paying white farmers compensation, or in minister Clare Short's words, "I should make it clear that we do not accept that Britain has a special responsibility to meet the costs of land purchase in Zimbabwe. We are a new Government from diverse backgrounds without links to former colonial interests. My own origins are Irish and as you know we were colonised not colonisers".[57]
Some commentators, such as Matthew Sweet in The Independent, hold Cecil Rhodes ultimately responsible:
... It was Cecil Rhodes who originated the racist 'land grabs' to which Zimbabwe's current miseries can ultimately be traced. It was Rhodes who in 1887 told the House Of Assembly in Capetown, South Africa that 'the native is to be treated as a child and denied the franchise. We must adopt a system on despotism in our relations with the barbarians of Southern Africa'.[58]
According to Sweet, "In less oratorical moments, he put it even more bluntly: 'I prefer land to niggers.'"
From February 12 to 13, 2000, a referendum was held on constitutional amendments. The proposed amendments would have limited future presidents to two terms, but as it was not retroactive, Mugabe could have stood for another two terms. It also would have made his government and military officials immune from prosecution for any illegal acts committed while in office. In addition, it allowed the government to confiscate white-owned land for redistribution to black farmers without compensation. The motion failed with 55% of participants against the referendum.[59] The referendum had a 20% turnout fuelled by an effective SMS campaign. Mugabe declared that he would "abide by the will of the people". The vote was a surprise to ZANU-PF, and an embarrassment before parliamentary elections due in mid-April. Almost immediately, self-styled "war veterans", led by Chenjerai 'Hitler' Hunzvi, began invading white-owned farms. Those who did not leave voluntarily were often tortured and sometimes killed. One was forced to drink diesel fuel as a form of torture.[60] On April 6, 2000, Parliament pushed through an amendment, taken word for word from the draft constitution that was rejected by voters, allowing the seizure of white-owned farmlands without due reimbursement or payment.[61]
Since these actions, agricultural production has plummeted and the economy is crippled. Once the "bread basket" of southern Africa and a major agricultural exporter, Zimbabwe now depends on food programs and support from outside to feed its population.[62] A third of the population depends on food supplies from the World Food Programme to avoid starvation.[62]
On December 8, 2003, in protest against a further 18 months of suspension from the Commonwealth of Nations (thereby cutting foreign aid to Zimbabwe), Mugabe withdrew his country from the Commonwealth. Mugabe informed the leaders of Jamaica, Nigeria and South Africa of his decision when they telephoned him to discuss the situation. Zimbabwe's government said the President did not accept the Commonwealth's position, and was leaving the group.[63]
The United Nations provoked anger when its Food and Agriculture Organisation invited Mugabe to speak at a celebration of its 60th anniversary in Rome. Critics of the move argued that since Mugabe could not feed his own people without the UN's support, he was an inappropriate speaker for the group, which has a mission statement of "helping to build a world without hunger".[62]
In 2005, Mugabe ordered a raid conducted on what the government termed "illegal shelters" in Harare, resulting in 10,000 urban poor being left homeless from "Operation Murambatsvina (English: Operation Drive Out the Rubbish)." The authorities themselves had moved the poor inhabitants to the area in 1992, telling them not to build permanent homes and that their new homes were temporary, leading the inhabitants to build their own temporary shelters out of cardboard and wood.[64] Since the inhabitants of the shantytowns overwhelmingly supported the Movement for Democratic Change opposition party in the previous election, many alleged that the mass bulldozing was politically motivated.[64] The UK's Daily Telegraph noted that Mugabe's "latest palace," in the style of a pagoda, was located a mile from the destroyed shelters.[64] The UN released a report stating that the actions of Mugabe resulted in the loss of home or livelihood for more than 700,000 Zimbabweans and negatively affected 2.4 million more.[62]
As of September 2006, Mugabe's family owns three farms: Highfield Estate in Norton, 45 km west of Harare, Iron Mask Estate in Mazowe, about 40 km from Harare, and Foyle Farm in Mazowe, formerly owned by Ian Webster and adjacent to Iron Mask Farm, renamed to Gushungo Farm after Mugabe's own clan name.[65] These farms were seized forcibly from their previous owners.[66]
Mugabe blames the food shortages on drought.[62] Zimbabwe's state-owned press accused former British Prime Minister Tony Blair of using chemical weapons to incite droughts and famines in Africa.[62]
Elections This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding reliable references. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (May 2008) The neutrality of this article is disputed. Please see the discussion on the talk page. (May 2008) Please do not remove this message until the dispute is resolved.
In April 1979, 64% of the black citizens of Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe) lined up at the polls to vote in the first democratic election in the history of that southern African nation. Two-thirds of them supported Abel Muzorewa, a bishop in the United Methodist Church. He was the first black prime minister of a country only 4% white. Muzorewa's victory put an end to the 14-year political odyssey of outgoing prime minister Ian Smith, the stubborn World War II veteran who had infamously announced in 1976, "I do not believe in black majority rule--not in a thousand years."
Less than a year after Muzorewa's victory, however, in February 1980, another election was held in Zimbabwe. This time, Robert Mugabe, the Marxist who had fought a seven-year guerilla war against Rhodesia's white-led government, won 64% of the vote, after a campaign marked by widespread intimidation, outright violence, and Mugabe's threat to continue the civil war if he lost. Mugabe became prime minister and was toasted by the international community and media as a new sort of African leader.
Mugabe has continued to win elections, although frequently these have been criticised by outsiders for violating various electoral procedures.
Mugabe faced Morgan Tsvangirai of the Movement for Democratic Change (MDC) in presidential elections in March 2002.[67] Mugabe defeated Tsvangirai by 56.2% to 41.9% amid violence and the prevention of large numbers of citizens in urban areas from voting. The conduct of the elections was widely viewed internationally as having been manipulated.[68][69] Many groups, such as the United States, the European Union, the United Kingdom, and Morgan Tsvangirai's Movement for Democratic Change (MDC), assert that the result was rigged.[67]
On July 3, 2004, a report adopted by the African Union executive council, which comprises foreign ministers of the 53 member states, criticized the government for the arrest and torture of opposition members of parliament and human rights lawyers, the arrest of journalists, the stifling of freedom of expression and clampdowns on other civil liberties. It was compiled by the AU's African Commission on Human and Peoples' Rights, which sent a mission to Zimbabwe from June 24 to 28 2002, shortly after the presidential elections. The report was apparently not submitted to the AU's 2003 summit because it had not been translated into French. It was adopted at the next AU summit in 2005.[70]
Mugabe's ZANU-PF party won the 2005 parliamentary elections with an increased majority. The elections were said by (again) South African observers to "reflect the free will of the people of Zimbabwe", despite accusations of widespread fraud from the MDC.[71]
On February 6, 2007, Mugabe orchestrated a cabinet reshuffle, ousting ministers including five-year veteran finance minister Herbert Murerwa.[72]
On March 11, 2007, opposition leader Morgan Tsvangirai was arrested and beaten following a prayer meeting in the Harare suburb of Highfields. Another member of the Movement for Democratic Change was killed while other protesters were injured.[73] Mugabe claimed that "Tsvangirai deserved his beating-up by police because he was not allowed to attend a banned rally" on March 30 2007.[74]
General elections 2008
Main article: Zimbabwean presidential election, 2008
Mugabe launched his election campaign on his birthday in Beitbridge, a small town on the border with South Africa on 23 February 2008 by denouncing both the opposition MDC and Simba Makoni's candidacy. He was quoted in the state media as saying: "Dr Makoni lacked majority support while Mr Tsvangirai was in the presidential race simply to please his Western backers in exchange for money".[75] These are the charges he has used in the past to describe the leader of the opposition.[citation needed]
In the week Dr. Makoni launched his campaign for the presidency, he accused Mugabe of buying votes from the electorate. This was a few hours after Dumiso Dabengwa had come out and endorsed Dr. Makoni's candidature.[76]
First-round defeat and the campaign of violence
The presidential elections were conducted on March 29, 2008, together with the parliamentary elections. On April 2, 2008, the Zimbabwe Election Commission confirmed Mugabe and his party, known as ZANU-PF, lost control of Parliament to the main opposition party, the Movement for Democratic Change. This was confirmed when the results were released.[77] Both the opposition and his party challenged the results in some constituencies.[78] According to unofficial polling, Zanu-PF took 94 seats, and the main opposition party MDC took 96 seats.[79] On 3 April 2008 Zimbabwean government forces began cracking down on the main opposition party and arresting at least two foreign journalists covering the disputed presidential election, including a correspondent for The New York Times.[80][81]
On March 30, 2008, Mugabe convened a meeting with his top security officials to discuss his defeat in the elections. According to Washington Post, he was prepared to concede, but was advised by Zimbabwe's military chief Gen. Constantine Chiwenga to remain in the race, with the senior military officers "supervising a military-style campaign against the opposition".[82] The first phase of the plan started a week later, involving the building of 2,000 party compounds across Zimbabwe, to serve as bases for the party militias.[82] On an April 8, 2008 meeting, the military plan was given the code name of "CIBD", which stood for: "Coercion. Intimidation. Beating. Displacement."[82]
The official results for the presidential elections would be delayed for five weeks. When British Prime Minister Gordon Brown attempted to intervene into the election controversy, Mugabe dismissed him as "a little tiny dot on this planet".[83]
When the official results for the presidential elections were finally published by the Zimbabwe election commission on 2 May, 2008, they showed that Mr. Mugabe had lost in the first round, getting 1,079,730 votes (43.2%) against 1,195,562 (47.9%) collected by Mr. Tsvangirai. Therefore no candidate secured the final win in the first round, and a presidential run-off will be needed. The opposition called the results "scandalous daylight robbery", claiming an outright victory in the first round with 50.3% of the votes.[84]
Mugabe's run-off campaign was managed by Emerson Mnangagwa, a former security chief of the conflict of Gukurahundi.[82] The Washington Post asserts that the campaign of violence was bringing results to the ruling party, by crushing the opposition party MDC and coercion of its supporters. By June 20, 2008, the Zimbabwe Association of Doctors for Human Rights had "recorded 85 deaths in political violence since the first round of voting".[85] News organizations report that, by the date of the second-round election, more than 80 opposition supporters had been killed, hundreds more were missing, in addition to thousands injured, and hundreds of thousands driven from their homes.[82]
Zimbabwean officials alleged that activists of the MDC, disguised as ZANU-PF members, had perpetrated violence against the population, mimicking the tactics of the Selous Scouts during the liberation struggle. They alleged that there was a "predominance" of Selous Scouts in the MDC.[86] The Sunday Mail published an article which claims that former Selous Scouts are training MDC youth activists in violent tactics, at locations near Tswane (Pretoria) and Pietermaritzburg in South Africa.[87]
In addition, at least 100 officials and polling officers of the Zimbabwe Electoral Commission have been arrested after the first round election. [88] [89]
Morgan Tsvangirai initially agreed to a presidential run-off with Robert Mugabe,[90] but later withdrew (on June 22, 2008), citing violence targeted at his campaign. He complained that the elections were pointless, as the outcome would be determined by Mugabe himself.[91]
The outcome of the run-off election
The run-off election was held on 27 June 2008, and Zimbabwe’s Electoral Commission released the results two days later. The official results showed that Mugabe had managed to double his votes since the first round, to 2,150,269 votes (85.5%), while his opponent Tsvangirai obtained only 233,000 (9.3%).[92] However Tsvangirai had pulled out previously because of widespread violence from the Zanu Pf's forces. The violence includes beating, rape and others. Many voted because if they didn't they could face violence against them. Although witnesses and election monitors had reported a low turnout in many areas of the country,[93] the official tally showed that the total vote had increased, from 2,497,265 votes in the first round[94] to 2,514,750 votes in the second round.[95]
Two legal opinions commissioned by the Southern African Litigation Centre (SALC) [96] declared the run-off election illegal because it occurred outside the 21 day period within which it had to take place under Zimbabwean law. Under item 3(1)(b) of the Second Schedule of the Electoral Act, if no second election is held within 21 days of the first election, the candidate with the highest number of votes in the first election has been duly elected as President and must be declared as such. According to the figures released by Zimbabwe’s Electoral Commission, that would mean that Morgan Tsvangirai is the de jure President.
Mugabe's inauguration to his sixth presidential term of office was a hastily arranged ceremony, convened barely an hour after the electoral commission declared his victory on 29 June 2008.[97] None of his fellow African heads of state were present at his inauguration; there were only family members, ministers, and security chiefs in the guests' tent.[98]
The Zimbabwean military, and not President Robert Mugabe, is now running the troubled country, in the opinion of a South Africa-based NGO called the Zimbabwe Solidarity Forum (ZSF) - 10 Jul 2008.[99]
The United Kingdom announced a policy of seizing foreign assets belonging to Mugabe. Mugabe replied that he has no foreign assets to seize. The British government proceeded to seize the bank account of Sam Mugabe, a 23-year old British subject of Zimbabwean origin, no relation to Robert Mugabe. The HSBC bank which carried out the seizure of her account subsequently apologized.[100][101][102]
Criticism and opposition Example of foreign criticism: a demonstration against Mugabe's regime next to the Zimbabwe embassy in London (Summer 2006). Example of foreign criticism: a demonstration against Mugabe's regime next to the Zimbabwe embassy in London (Summer 2006).
Since 1998 Mugabe's policies have increasingly elicited domestic and international denunciation. They have been denounced as racist against Zimbabwe's white minority[12][13][14] Mugabe has described his critics as "born again colonialists",[103][16] and both he and his supporters claim that Zimbabwe's problems are the legacy of imperialism,[104] aggravated by Western economic meddling. The loudest and most persistent criticism of Mugabe comes from the United Kingdom[citation needed], which, according to The Herald, a Zimbabwean newspaper owned by the government, is pursuing a policy of regime change.[105]
Mugabe's critics accuse him of conducting a "reign of terror"[64][106] and being an 'extremely poor role model' for the continent, whose 'transgressions' are 'unpardonable'.[107] In solidarity with the April 2007 general strike called by the Zimbabwe Congress of Trade Unions (ZCTU), British Trades Union Congress General Secretary Brendan Barber said of Mugabe's regime: 'Zimbabwe's people are suffering from Mugabe's appalling economic mismanagement, corruption and brutal repression. They are standing up for their rights, and we must stand with them." Lela Kogbara, Chair of ACTSA (Action for Southern Africa) similarly has said: "As with every oppressive regime women and workers are left bearing the brunt. Please join us as we stand in solidarity with the people of Zimbabwe in their struggle for peace, justice and freedom".[108]
Robert Guest, the Africa editor for The Economist for seven years, argues that Mugabe is to blame for Zimbabwe's economic freefall. "In 1980, the average annual income in Zimbabwe was US$950, and a Zimbabwean dollar was worth more than an American one. By 2003, the average income was less than US$400, and the Zimbabwean economy was in freefall.[109] "[Mugabe] has ruled Zimbabwe for nearly three decades and has led it, in that time, from impressive success to the most dramatic peacetime collapse of any country since Weimar Germany".[8]
In the The Daily Telegraph of London, Mugabe was criticised for comparing himself to Hitler. Mugabe was quoted as saying "This Hitler has only one objective: justice for his people, sovereignty for his people, recognition of the independence of his people and their rights over their resources. If that is Hitler, then let me be a Hitler tenfold".[110]
In recent years, Western governments have condemned Mugabe's government. On 9 March 2003, U.S. President George W. Bush approved measures for economic sanctions to be leveled against Mugabe and other high-ranking Zimbabwe politicians, freezing their assets and barring Americans from engaging in any transactions or dealings with them. Justifying the move, Bush's spokesman stated that the President and Congress believe that "the situation in Zimbabwe endangers the southern African region and threatens to undermine efforts to foster good governance and respect for the rule of law throughout the continent." The bill was known as the Zimbabwe Democracy Act.[111]
In reaction to human rights violations in Zimbabwe, students at universities from which Mugabe has honorary doctorates have sought to get the degrees revoked. So far, the University of Edinburgh and University of Massachusetts have stripped Mugabe of his honorary degree[112] after two years of campaigning from their Edinburgh University Students' Association student union. In addition, the student body at Michigan State University (ASMSU) unanimously passed a resolution calling for this. The issue is now being considered by the university.[113]
Mugabe's office forbade the screening of the 2005 movie The Interpreter, claiming that it was propaganda by the CIA and fearing that it could incite hostility towards him.[114] In 2007, Parade magazine ranked Mugabe the 7th worst dictator in the world.[115]
An official from Chatham House suggested that Mugabe was unlikely to leave Zimbabwe, but that if he were to leave, he might go to Malaysia, where some believe that he has "stashed much of his wealth".[116]
In response to Mugabe's critics, former Zambian leader Kenneth Kaunda was quoted blaming not Mugabe for Zimbabwe's troubles, but successive British governments.[117] He wrote in June 2007 that "leaders in the West say Robert Mugabe is a demon, that he has destroyed Zimbabwe and he must be got rid of – but this demonising is made by people who may not understand what Robert Gabriel Mugabe and his fellow freedom fighters went through".[4] Similarly, Senegalese President Abdoulaye Wade, responded to his critics by saying that Zimbabwe's problems are the legacy of colonialism.[118]
Mugabe's supporters characterize him as a true Pan-Africanist and a dedicated anti-imperialist who stands strong against forces of imperialism in Africa. According to Mugabe's supporters, the Western media are not objectively reporting on Zimbabwe, but are peddling falsehoods. Mugabe's supporters accuse certain western governments of trying to eradicate pan-Africanism in order to deny real independence to African countries by imposing client regimes.[119]
The Times of London charged that on June 12, 2008, Mugabe's Militia murdered Dadirai Chipiro, the wife of Mugabe's political opponent, Patson Chipiro, by burning her alive with a petrol bomb after severing her hands and feet.[120]
Bans on travel in the E.U. and the U.S.A.
After observers from the European Union were barred from examining Zimbabwe's 2002 elections, the EU imposed a ban on Mugabe and 94 members of his government. The United States instituted a similar ban. The EU's ban has a few loopholes, resulting in Mugabe taking a few trips into Europe despite the ban. Mugabe is allowed to travel to UN events within European and American borders.[121]
On April 8, 2005, Mugabe attended the funeral of Pope John Paul II, a move which could be seen as defiance of a European Union travel ban that does not, however, apply to Vatican City. He was granted a transit visa by the Italian authorities, as they are obliged to under the Concordat. However, the Catholic hierarchy in Zimbabwe have been very vocal against his rule and the senior Catholic cleric, Archbishop Pius Ncube is a major critic, even calling for Western governments to help in his overthrow.[122][121] Mugabe surprised Prince Charles by shaking his hand during the service. Afterwards, the Prince's office released a statement saying, "The Prince of Wales was caught by surprise and not in a position to avoid shaking Mr Mugabe’s hand. The Prince finds the current Zimbabwean regime abhorrent. He has supported the Zimbabwe Defence and Aid Fund which works with those being oppressed by the regime. The Prince also recently met Pius Ncube, the Archbishop of Bulawayo, an outspoken critic of the government".[123]
Before the ban, one of Mugabe's favourite pastimes was to travel to London.[8]
Robert Mugabe and senior members of the Harare government are not allowed to travel to the United States because it is the position of the US government that he has worked to undermine democracy in Zimbabwe and has restricted freedom of the press.[124] Despite strained political relations, the United States remains a leading provider of humanitarian assistance to Zimbabwe, providing roughly $400 million in humanitarian assistance from 2002-2007, mostly food aid.[125]
Appearance at the FAO conference, June 2008
Because United Nations events are exempt from the travel bans, Mugabe attended the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) summit in Rome. African leaders threatened to boycott the event if Mugabe were blacklisted; when he was not, the United Kingdom refused to send a representative. British and Australian officials denounced the presence of Mugabe.[126][127]
Succession
As one of Africa's longest-lasting leaders, speculation has built over the years as to the future of Zimbabwe after Mugabe leaves office. His age and recurring rumours of failing health have focused more attention on possible successors within his party as well as the opposition. The March 11, 2007 crackdown against a religious gathering sponsored by the opposition attracted scrutiny.[128]
In June 2005, a report that Mugabe had entered a hospital for tests on his heart fueled rumours that he had died of a heart attack;[129] these reports were dismissed by a Mugabe spokesman. This coincided with Operation Murambatsvina (or "Drive Out Trash"), a police campaign to demolish houses and businesses that had been built without permission on land previously taken from white landholders and intended for redistribution. Opponents called this an attempt to disperse urban centres of dissent into rural areas where the government had more control. Former information minister Jonathan Moyo attributed the events to a power struggle within the party over who would succeed Mugabe.
Joyce Mujuru, recently elevated to vice-president of ZANU-PF during the December 2004 party congress and considerably younger than Joseph Msika, the other vice-president, has been mentioned as a likely successor to Mugabe. Joyce Mujuru's candidacy for the presidency is strengthened by the backing of her husband, Solomon Mujuru, who is the former head of the Zimbabwean army.
In October 2006, a report prepared by Zimbabwe's Ministry of Economic Development acknowledged the lack of coordination among critical government departments in Zimbabwe and the overall lack of commitment to end the crisis. The report implied that the infighting in Zanu-PF over Mugabe's successor was also hurting policy formulation and consistency in implementation.[130]
In late 2006, a plan was presented to postpone the next presidential election until 2010, at the same time as the next parliamentary election, thereby extending Mugabe's term by two years. It was said that holding the two elections together would be a cost-saving measure.[131] However, this plan was not approved and there were reportedly objections from some in ZANU-PF to the idea. In March 2007 Mugabe said that he thought the feeling was in favour of holding the two elections together in 2008 instead of 2010. He also said that he would be willing to run for re-election again if the party wanted him to run.[132] Other leaders in Southern Africa were rumoured to be less warm on the idea of extending his term to 2010; recently, at the independence celebrations in Ghana, South African President Thabo Mbeki was rumoured to have met with Mugabe in private and told him that "he was determined that South Africa's hosting of the Football World Cup in 2010 should not be disrupted by controversial presidential elections in Zimbabwe".[133]
On March 30, 2007, it was announced that the ZANU-PF central committee had chosen Mugabe as the party's candidate for another term in 2008, that presidential terms would be shortened to five years, and that the parliamentary election would also be held in 2008.[134] Mugabe was chosen by acclamation as the party's presidential candidate for 2008 by ZANU-PF delegates at a party conference on December 13 2007.[135]
Honours and revocations
In 1994 Mugabe was appointed an honorary Knight Grand Cross in the Order of the Bath by Queen Elizabeth II.[136] This entitled him to use the postnominal letters GCB, but not to use the title "Sir." In the United Kingdom, the House of Commons Foreign Affairs Select Committee called for the removal of this honour in 2003, and on 25 June 2008, Queen Elizabeth II cancelled and annulled the honorary knighthood after advice from the Foreign Secretary of the United Kingdom."This action has been taken as a mark of revulsion at the abuse of human rights and abject disregard for the democratic process in Zimbabwe over which President Mugabe has presided".[137]
Mugabe holds several honorary degrees and doctorates from international universities, awarded to him in the 1980s; at least two of these have since been revoked. In June 2007, he became the first international figure ever to be stripped of an honorary degree by a British university, when the University of Edinburgh withdrew the degree awarded to him in 1984.[138] On 12 June 2008, the University of Massachusetts Board of Trustees voted to revoke the law degree awarded to Mugabe in 1986; this is the first time one of its honorary degrees has been revoked.[139] Similarly, Michigan State University is currently considering revoking an honorary law degree that it awarded Mugabe in 1990.[140]
Personal life
His first wife, Sally Hayfron, died in 1992 from a chronic kidney ailment.[141] Their only son, Nhamodzenyika, born 27 September 1963, died on December 26, 1966 from cerebral malaria in Ghana where Sally was working while Mugabe was in prison. Sally Mugabe was a trained teacher who asserted her position as an independent political activist and campaigner[142] who was seen as Mugabe's closest friend and adviser, and some critics suggest that Mugabe began to misrule Zimbabwe after her death.[8]
Mugabe married his former secretary, Grace Marufu, 40 years his junior and with whom he already had two children,[143] on August 17, 1996. Mugabe and Marufu were married in a Roman Catholic wedding Mass at Kutama College, a Catholic mission school he previously attended. Nelson Mandela was among the guests. His wife, Grace, is known sarcastically as "Gucci Grace" or "The First Shopper" in reference to her numerous, lavish European shopping sprees.[144][145]
The Mugabes have three children: Bona, Robert Peter Jr. (although Robert Mugabe's middle name is Gabriel) and Bellarmine Chatunga. As First Lady, Grace has been the subject of criticism for her lifestyle. When she was included in the 2002 EU travel sanctions on her husband, one EU parliamentarian was quoted as saying that the ban "will stop Grace Mugabe going on her shopping trips in the face of catastrophic poverty blighting the people of Zimbabwe."[146] The Daily Telegraph called her "notorious at home for her profligacy" in a 2003 coverage of a trip to Paris.[147]
In fiction
The movie The Interpreter features a fictional African ruler with many parallels to Mugabe. The Mugabe government described the film as "anti-Zimbabwean" and a "CIA-campaign against Robert Mugabe".[148]
References
Notes
1. ^ Chan, Stephen (2003). Robert Mugabe: A Life of Power and Violence, 123. 2. ^ "G8 to move against Mugabe allies", BBC News (2008-07-08). 3. ^ Martin Meredith. Mugabe: Power, Plunder, and the Struggle for Zimbabwe's Future. 2007. PublicAffairs. p.243 4. ^ a b Viewpoint: Kaunda on Mugabe BBC 12 June 2007 5. ^ Biles, Peter (2007-08-25). "Mugabe's hold on Africans", BBC News. 6. ^ "Cash crisis: No end in sight". The Zimbabwe Situation. Retrieved on 2008-06-28. and dozens more references at Zimbabwean_dollar#Money_supply_.282006-2008.29 7. ^ "Zimbabwe Tells All Aid Groups to Halt Efforts". New York Times. Retrieved on 2008-06-28. 8. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n Staff (2007-03-29). "Robert Mugabe: The man behind the fist". The Economist. 9. ^ "Zimbabwe's hunger deepens as election crisis bites". Reuters. Retrieved on 2008-06-28. 10. ^ "IDMC_Internal_Displacement_Global_Overview_2007 pdf" (PDF). 11. ^ "The Daily Telegraph". See also: Guest, Robert (2005). The Shackled Continent: Africa's Past, Present and Future. Pan Books. 12. ^ a b "UK anger over Zimbabwe violence", BBC News (2000-04-01). 13. ^ a b McGreal, Peter (2007-04-02). "Corrupt, greedy and violent: Mugabe attacked by Catholic bishops after years of silence", The Guardian. 14. ^ a b Bentley, Daniel (2007-09-17). "Sentamu urges Mugabe Action", The Independent. 15. ^ "Mugabe: US must disarm", BBC News (2007-02-25). 16. ^ a b Egbuna, Obi (2003-07-31). "Zimbabwe: Who else but Mugabe?". The Black Commentator (51). 17. ^ "Colonial history tugs at EU-Africa ties", People's Daily (2007-12-05). 18. ^ "Announces “Corrected” results". Zimbabwe Metro. Retrieved on 2008-06-28. 19. ^ Staff reporter (2007-05-21). "Mugabe mourns reclusive brother", newzimbabwe.com. Retrieved on 2008-04-03. 20. ^ Nyarota, Geoffrey (2006). Against the Grain, 100. 21. ^ "President bio contents". Zimbabwean government website. Government of Zimbabwe. Retrieved on 2008-04-04. 22. ^ Christine Kenyon Jones, The People's University: 150 years of the University of London and its External students (University of London External System, 2008) pages 148-149 ISBN 0955768918 23. ^ "I am still a disciple of Nkrumah – Mugabe", General News of Monday, 2 July 2007, Ghana Home Page. Retrieved on 2007-07-03. 24. ^ Lectured at Chalimbana Teacher Training College, Zambia (1955–1958) 25. ^ Olson, James Stuart; Robert Shadle. Historical Dictionary of the British Empire, 764. 26. ^ Glaude Jr., Eddie (2002). Is It Nation Time?: Contemporary Essays on Black Power and Black Nationalism, 105. 27. ^ "How Mugabe came to power". London Review of Books. Retrieved on 2008-06-28. 28. ^ Mugabe: The price of silence, BBC, 10 March 2002 29. ^ "Zimbabwejournalists.com: Calls for justice 20 years after massacre". 30. ^ Golenpaul, Ann; Dan Golenpaul. Information Please Almanac, Atlas and Yearbook, 290. 31. ^ Human Rights Watch (2000). Abdication of Responsibility: The Commonwealth and Human Rights, 343. 32. ^ Hill, Geoff. The Battle for Zimbabwe: The Final Countdown, 78. 33. ^ Breckenridge, Robert Edgerton. Africa's Armies: From Honour to Infamy, 95. 34. ^ St. John, Lauren. Rainbow's End: A Memoir of Childhood, War, and an African Farm, 234. 35. ^ "The virtues of isolationism". The Economist. Retrieved on 2007-07-08. 36. ^ a b c "Zimbabwe Achieving Shared Growth". World Bank. Retrieved on 2008-06-28. 37. ^ "Country Health System Fact Sheet 2006 Zimbabwe". World Health Organisation. Retrieved on 2008-06-28. 38. ^ "World Economic Outlook: World Economic and Financial Surveys" p.65. International Monetary Fund (September 2006). Retrieved on 2008-06-28. 39. ^ CCN News Zimbabwe currency crashes; inflation as high as 9,000% retrieved July 4 2007 40. ^ "US says Zimbabwe change is afoot", BBC News. Retrieved on 2007-07-04. 41. ^ "Zimbabwe faces hard road to prosperity post-Mugabe", Reuters Africa. Retrieved on 2008-06-28. 42. ^ "Zimbabwe has shortage of food, abundance of zeros", Associated Press. Retrieved on 2008-06-28. 43. ^ "Zimbabwe’s top cleric urges Britain to invade". The Sunday Times (July 1, 2007). Retrieved on 2008-06-28. 44. ^ Sentamu, John, Saving Zimbabwe is not colonialism, it's Britain's duty, Observer September 16, 2007, Accessed June 24, 2008 45. ^ Page 213 Encyclopedia of Sex and Gender: Men and Women in the World's Cultures 46. ^ a b Page 180 Hungochani: The History of a Dissident Sexuality in Southern Africa 47. ^ Under African Skies, Part I: 'Totally unacceptable to cultural norms' Kaiwright.com 48. ^ Page 93 Body, Sexuality, and Gender v. 1 49. ^ Canaan Banana, president jailed in sex scandal, dies The Guardian 50. ^ Congo At War: A Briefing of the Internal and External Players in the Central African Conflict, International Crisis Group, 17 November 1998 51. ^ Lasker, John, Resource Wars in Africa: AFRICOM and the Reach of US Corporations, Toward Freedom, April 18, 2008 52. ^ DR Congo troops 'to repel Rwanda', BBC, Dec. 3, 2004 53. ^ Mugabe's costly Congo venture BBC 54. ^ Chigara, Ben (2002). Land Reform Policy. Ashgate Publishing, 52. 55. ^ Page 302 Big Men, Little People: The Leaders Who Defined Africa 56. ^ 619 The Fate of Africa: A History of Fifty Years of Independence 57. ^ Zimbabwe: The Spark...Claire Short's letter of November 1997, by Baffour Ankomah, 31 March 2003 58. ^ Sweet, Matthew, "A Bad Man in Africa," The Independent, March 16, 2002 59. ^ Page 372 Africa Review 2003/2004 60. ^ [http://www.powells.com/review/2008_01_07.html "In the Pit of Africa" A Review by Joshua Hammer. New York Review of Books, January 7, 2008 61. ^ "Constitution of Zimbabwe, Chapter III, Section 16, p. 10." (PDF). 62. ^ a b c d e f "Mugabe to speak at hunger debate as he defies EU travel ban again". Telegraph. Retrieved on 2007-07-08. 63. ^ "PM – Zimbabwe leaves the Commonwealth". 64. ^ a b c d "Mugabe's raids leave townships in tatters" (2005-03-06). 65. ^ Mugabe seizes third farm for himself, IOL, 10 September 2006 66. ^ "Harare Losing Key Allies". 67. ^ a b West boycotts Mugabe ceremony CNN 68. ^ Mugabe wins as tension hangs over Zimbabwe Christian Science Monitor 69. ^ Zimbabwe: A Dream Betrayed Association of Concerned Africa Scholars On the Edge Commentary 70. ^ "The African Union: what's in a name?". 71. ^ Let's turn the screw on Robert Mugabe Peter Kagwanja and Alba Lamberti. European Voice via International Crisis Group 72. ^ "The Zimbabwe Situation". 73. ^ Zimbabwe's Tsvangirai Has Brain Scan, Was Hurt While in Custody, Bloomberg, 14 March 2007 74. ^ Mugabe Thug Rant, Mirror, 31 March 2007 75. ^ "President writes off opposition". Retrieved on 2008-02-25. 76. ^ "Makoni accuses Mugabe of vote buying". The Zimbabwe Guardian. Retrieved on 2008-03-02. 77. ^ "Final House of Assembly Results", Zimbabwe Metro. Retrieved on 2008-06-28. 78. ^ "Robert Mugabe's reign set to end in Zimbabwe, but World fears a bloodbath", The Mirror 79. ^ Mugabe's Zanu-PF loses majority BBC News 3 April 2008 80. ^ Raids target Zimbabwe opposition party CNN 3 April 2008 81. ^ New Signs of Mugabe Crackdown in Zimbabwe New York Times 3 April 2008 82. ^ a b c d e Inside Mugabe's Violent Crackdown Washington Post 5 July 2008 83. ^ Robert Mugabe: Gordon Brown just ‘a tiny dot’ Times Online April 13 2008 84. ^ "BBC: Zimbabwe announces poll results". 85. ^ A timeline of recent events in Zimbabwe's political crisis 86. ^ "UN Blocks British, U.S. Attempts to Halt Run-Off, The Herald (allAfrica), June 25, 2008. 87. ^ Mutema, Ralph, Zimbabwe: Tsvangirai Asked Khama for Armoured Car, The Zimbabwe Guardian, June 2, 2008 88. ^ Zimbabwe's MDC Vows to Boycott Runoff With Mugabe Bloomberg May 02 2008 89. ^ Zimbabwe to bar local vote observers with 'pre-conceived ideas' AFP Jun 18 2008 90. ^ "Afp.google.com, Opposition leader returns to Zimbabwe". 91. ^ Mugabe rival quits election race BBC 22 June 2008 92. ^ Mugabe wins by 9-to-1 margin - accessed 2008-07-01. 93. ^ Mugabe likely to be inaugurated on Sunday-sources - accessed 2008-07-01. 94. ^ [1] - accessed 2008-07-01. 95. ^ Mugabe wins by 9-to-1 margin - accessed 2008-07-01. 96. ^ Pull-out irrelevant: Delay nullified run-off - accessed 2008-06-23 97. ^ afp.google.com, Mugabe begins new term as criticism of one-man election mounts 98. ^ In pictures: Mugabe's inauguration - accessed 2008-07-01. 99. ^ [2]Zimbabwe Solidarity Forum (ZSF) 100. ^ UK steps up regime change agenda, hunts for suspected assets, The Herald, July 16, 2008 101. ^ Woman Named Mugabe Unpaid in Bank Mistake Fox News, July 15, 2008 102. ^ Sam Mugabe Mistaken for Tyrant Namesake, The Sun, July 18, 2008 103. ^ "Mugabe: US must disarm", BBC News (2007-02-25). 104. ^ "Colonial history tugs at EU-Africa ties", People's Daily (2007-12-05). 105. ^ UK steps up regime change agenda, hunts for suspected assets, The Herald, July 16, 2008 106. ^ The Spectator Dictators' legacies retrieved from FindArticles.com on July 7 2007 107. ^ Tribune India Commonwealth at crossroads 52 heads failed to look beyond Zimbabwe! retrieved July 7 2007 108. ^ National Union of Mineworkers TUC Backs Zimbabwe's Trade Unions retrieved July 7 2007 109. ^ Guest, Robert. The Shackled Continent: Africa's Past, Present and Future. Pan Books, 2005 110. ^ "'Hitler' Mugabe launches revenge terror attacks – Telegraph". 111. ^ President Signs Zimbabwe Democracy and Economic Recovery Act 21 December 2001 112. ^ "Mugabe stripped of degree honour", BBC (6 June 2007). See also: "Mugabe loses Honorary Degree from UMass". The New York Times. Retrieved on 2008-06-28. 113. ^ "UMass students aim to revoke honorary degree for Mugabe – The Boston Globe". 114. ^ Rainbow Banned From Screening "Anti-Mugabe" Movie, ZimDaily, 23 September 2005 115. ^ "The World's Worst Dictators – 2007". 116. ^ Robert Mugabe 'unlikely to flee Zimbabwe', Daily Telegraph, 4.4.2008 117. ^ Peter Biles: "Mugabe's hold on Africans." BBC News website, 25 August 2007. Retrieved 27 August 2007. 118. ^ "Colonial history tugs at EU-Africa ties," People's Daily 119. ^ Kwanisai Mafa, "Zimbabwe: Imperialism Will Meet Its Death On Election Day", The Herald (Harare), 19 March 2008 120. ^ "Robert Mugabe's militia burn opponent’s wife alive". The Times. Retrieved on 2008-06-28. 121. ^ a b "•MUGABE DEFIES EU, FLIES TO ROME". MSNBC. Retrieved on 2007-07-08. 122. ^ Mugabe warns Catholic bishops over politics Reuters retrieved 4 July 2007 123. ^ "Charles shakes hands with Mugabe at Pope's funeral". Times. Retrieved on 2007-07-08. 124. ^ Recent OFAC Actions, US Dept. of Treasury, November 23, 2005 (accessed 02/07/2008) 125. ^ http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/5479.htm U.S. Department of State, Bureau of African Affairs, February 2008 (accessed 04/02/2008) 126. ^ "afp.google.com/article/ALeqM5iN7-bIe4r7GRfYcxabOT7WbWLaSw". 127. ^ "afp.google.com/article/ALeqM5gUQxFQpnXvjBlmAW76S247JHjUiQ". 128. ^ ""Activist held in Zimbabwe crackdown"". 129. ^ Zimbabwe denies reports Robert Mugabe is dead, CTV, 7 June 2005 130. ^ Zim government in chaos, says secret report IOL 131. ^ "Mugabe set to rule until 2010", IRIN, 14 December 2006. 132. ^ "Mugabe ready for 2008 elections", DPA (IOL), 12 March 2007. 133. ^ BBC News S Africa changes tune on Zimbabwe retrieved July 4 2007 134. ^ "Zimbabwe's Mugabe to stand in 2008 poll", Reuters (Sydney Morning Herald), March 31, 2007. 135. ^ "Mugabe to run again for Zanu-PF", BBC News, December 13, 2007. 136. ^ "Mugabe honorary knighthood annulled". 137. ^ "Foreign and Commonwealth Office Statement". See also "Queen strips Robert Mugabe of knighthood to mark 'revulsion' at violence", Times Online. Retrieved on 2008-06-25. and "Robert Mugabe to be stripped of knighthood", The Daily Telegraph. Retrieved on 2008-06-25. and Cowell, Alan. "Queen Strips Mugabe of Knighthood", The New York Times. Retrieved on 2008-06-26. 138. ^ "Mugabe stripped of degree by Edinburgh", The Times. Retrieved on 2007-07-04. See also: Paul Kelbie (July 15, 2007). "Edinburgh University revokes Mugabe degree", The Observer. Retrieved on 2008-06-28. 139. ^ "UMass revokes Mugabe's honorary degree", The Boston Globe. Retrieved on 2008-06-28. 140. ^ "MSU considers revoking Mugabe honorary degree", Detroit Free Press. Retrieved on 2008-07-22. 141. ^ The New York Times, "Obituaries: Sally Mugabe, Zimbabwe President's Wife, 60", January 28, 1992 142. ^ FO's fight over Mugabe's wife | Politics | The Guardian 143. ^ "Where We Have Hope: A Memoir of Zimbabwe By Andrew Meldrum" 144. ^ Brook, Sally, The Sun, UK, March 4, 2004 145. ^ [http://www.eastandard.net/archives/cl/hm_news/news.php?articleid=1143958026&date=10/9/2006 Ng’ang’a, Nixon, The Standard, Kenya, September 10, 2006 146. ^ Mugabe's wife on EU sanctions list, BBC, 22 July 2002 147. ^ Truffle dinners for £190 at the Mugabes' glittering hideaway, Telegraph, 2 February 2003< 148. ^ "Zimbabwe accuses CIA of film plot", BBC news (5 September 2005). Retrieved on 2008-06-28.
Bibliography
* Chan, Stephen (2003). Robert Mugabe: A life of power and violence. London: IB Taurus. ISBN 9781860648731. * East, R. and Thomas, Richard J. Profiles of People in Power: The World ́s Government Leaders, 2003 ISBN 185743126X. * Holland, Heidi. Dinner with Mugabe, 2008. Penguin, South Africa. ISBN 9780143025573. * Meredith, Martin : Mugabe: Power and Plunder in Zimbabwe, 2003. Oxford [rev. updated ed.] ISBN 1586482130 (American ed.: Our votes, our guns * Mwakikagile, Godfrey. Nyerere and Africa: End of an Era, 2006, Chapter Eight: "The Rhodesian Crisis: Tanzania's Role." New Africa Press, South Africa. ISBN 9780980253412. * Nolan, Cathal J. Notable U.S. Ambassadors Since 1775: A Biographical Dictionary, 1997 ISBN 0313291950 * The Times (SA) Online. 'The angry little boy who showed them all'. Published: 01 Mar 2008. * Who's Who : African Nationalist Leaders in Rhodesia by Robert Cary and Diana Mitchell, 1977,1980,1994 Reprinted by Mardon Printers (PTY) Ltd, Harare.
External links Find more about Robert Mugabe on Wikipedia's sister projects: Dictionary definitions Textbooks Quotations Source texts Images and media News stories Learning resources
* "Mugging Mugabe" (a commentary in defence of Mugabe) * "The truth about Mugabe" (an anti-Mugabe commentary) * "Zimbabwe election – a defeat for imperialism" * "Zimbabwe's silent selective starvation" * "Robert Mugabe's War to Crush Press Freedom in Zimbabwe" * Reporters Without Borders profile on Mugabe * Freedom House report on Zimbabwe * IFEX – Media Coverage Favours Mugabe * "Robert Mugabe at UMass" from the WGBH series, Ten O'clock News * Indict Zimbabwe's demagogue before the International Criminal Court * "Zimbabwe and the Politics of Torture" * Human Rights Watch on Zimbabwe * “Comrade Mugabe is our leader”, War Vets million man march for Mugabe Zimbabwe Metro
Political offices Preceded by Abel Muzorewa as Prime Minister of Zimbabwe Rhodesia Prime Minister of Zimbabwe 1980 – 1987 Post abolished Preceded by Zail Singh Secretary General of Non-Aligned Movement 1986 – 1989 Succeeded by Janez Drnovšek Preceded by Canaan Banana President of Zimbabwe 1987 – present Incumbent Preceded by Paul Biya Cameroon Chairperson of the African Union 1997 – 1998 Succeeded by Blaise Compaoré Burkina Faso Party political offices Preceded by Herbert Chitepo Leader of the Zimbabwe African National Union 1975 – 1987 Merged with ZAPU New political party ZANU/ZAPU merger Leader of the Zimbabwe African National Union-Patriotic Front 1987 – present Incumbent [show] v • d • e Flag of Zimbabwe Ministers of the Zimbabwean Government since June 2000
Robert Mugabe (President) Joyce Mujuru / Joseph Msika (Deputy President) Aeneas Chigwedere (Education, Sports and Culture) Patrick Chinamasa (Justice, Legal and Parliamentary Affairs) Amos Midzi (Energy and Power Development) S. Mombeshora / C. Mushohwe (Transport and Communications) J. Moyo (2000-05) / T. Jokonya (2005-07) / S. Ndlovu (since 2007) (Information) Gideon Gono (RBZ Governor) S. Makoni (2000-02) / H. Murerwa (2002-07) / S. Mumbengegwi (since 2007) (Finance) Rugare Gumbo (Agriculture) Joseph Made (Agriculture Mechanization) Simbarashe Mumbengegwi (Foreign Affairs) Sydney Sekeramayi (Defence) Ambrose Mutinhiri (Youth Development and Medium Enterprises Development)
Kembo Mohadi (Home Affairs) Obert Mpofu (Industry and International Trade) Olivia Muchena (Science and Technology Development) David Parirenyatwa (Health and Child Welfare) Nicholas Goche (Public Service, Labour and Social Welfare) Ignatious Chombo (Local Government, Public Works and Urban Development) John Nkomo (Special Affairs) Paul Mangwana (Indigenisation and Empowerment) Emmerson Mnangagwa (Rural Housing and Social Amenities) Opa Muchinguri (Women Affairs, Gender and Community Development) Sithembiso Nyoni (Small and Medium Enterprises Development) Webster Shamu (Policy Implementation) Didymus Mutasa (State Security) [show] v • d • e Candidates in the 2008 Zimbabwe presidential election Flag of Zimbabwe
Robert Mugabe • Morgan Tsvangirai • Simba Makoni • Langton Towungana [show] v • d • e Flag of Zimbabwe Presidents of Zimbabwe
Canaan Banana · Robert Mugabe [show] v • d • e Prime Ministers of Zimbabwe and its antecedents, 1923-87 Coghlan • Moffat • Mitchell • Huggins • Todd • Whitehead • Field • Smith • Muzorewa • Mugabe Flag of Southern RhodesiaFlag of Zimbabwe [show] v • d • e Chairpersons of the Organization of African Unity and the African Union (AU)
Selassie · Nasser · Nkrumah · Ankrah · Selassie · Mobutu · Boumédienne · Ahidjo · Kaunda · Daddah · Hassan II · Gowon · Barre · Amin · Ramgoolam · Bongo · Nimeiry · Tolbert · Senghor · Stevens · Moi · Mengistu · Nyerere · Diouf · Nguesso · Kaunda · Traoré · Mubarak · Museveni · Babangida · Diouf · Mubarak · Ben Ali · Meles · Biya · Mugabe · Compaoré · Bouteflika · Eyadéma · Chiluba · Mwanawasa · Mbeki · Chissano · Obasanjo · Nguesso · Kufuor · Kikwete Flag of the African Union Persondata NAME Mugabe, Robert Gabriel ALTERNATIVE NAMES SHORT DESCRIPTION 2nd President and former Prime Minister of Zimbabwe DATE OF BIRTH 21 February 1924 PLACE OF BIRTH Kutama Mission, Harare DATE OF DEATH PLACE OF DEATH Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Mugabe" Categories: 1924 births | Alumni of the University of London External System | Cold War leaders | Current national leaders | Heads of government of Zimbabwe | Living people | Non-South African anti-apartheid activists | Presidents of Zimbabwe | University of South Africa alumni | Zimbabwean politicians | Zimbabwean revolutionaries | Zimbabwean Roman Catholics | ZANU-PF members | ZANU-PF leaders Hidden categories: Semi-protected | All articles with unsourced statements | Articles with unsourced statements since July 2008 | Articles needing additional references from May 2008 | NPOV disputes from May 2008 | All NPOV disputes | Articles with unsourced statements since June 2008 Views
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* 1 生平 o 1.1 早年 o 1.2 秋收起义到遵义会议 o 1.3 遵义会议到七大 o 1.4 七大到中华人民共和国成立 o 1.5 建国初期 o 1.6 左倾开始 o 1.7 文化大革命时期 * 2 政治生涯 o 2.1 毛泽东与国民党 o 2.2 毛泽东与知识分子 o 2.3 毛泽东与世界 o 2.4 毛泽东与政治伙伴 o 2.5 个人崇拜 o 2.6 毛泽东主导的政治运动 * 3 军事生涯 * 4 家庭 * 5 著作 o 5.1 理论著作 o 5.2 毛泽东诗词 o 5.3 毛泽东书法 o 5.4 毛主席语录 o 5.5 稿费 * 6 历史影响和评价 o 6.1 中国共产党官方评价 o 6.2 正面评价 o 6.3 负面评价 o 6.4 个人评价 o 6.5 对世界的影响 * 7 毛泽东思想 * 8 以毛泽东为题材的纪念 * 9 注释 * 10 参考文献 * 11 参见 * 12 外部链接
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ساهم معنا في بناء موسوعة ويكيبيديا بكتابة مقالات جديدة. أسامة بن لادن من ويكيبيديا، الموسوعة الحرة اذهب إلى: تصفح, ابحث
هذه المقالة محمية. انقر هنا للمزيد من المعلومات.
كنتيجة للتخريب في هذه الصفحة ، تم تعطيل القدرة على تحرير هذه الصفحة للمستخدمين الجدد أَو المجهولين بشكل مؤقت. أي تغيير مقترح يمكن أن يناقش على صفحة النقاش، أَو يمكن طلب إزالة الحماية في طلبات إزالة الحماية إذا شعرت بأنها تعيق قدرتك كمساهم جديّ.
أسامة بن لادن الميلاد 30 يوليو 1957 الرياض، السعودية الجنسية سعودي
أسامة بن لادن (30 يوليو 1957م)، هو أسامة بن محمد بن عوض بن لادن، مؤسس وزعيم تنظيم القاعدة والذي يوصف بأنه تنظيم إرهابي. ولقد قامت الولايات الأمريكية المتحدة بتوجيه الإتّهام المباشر له لتسبّبه في تفجيرات الخبر وتفجيرات نيروبي ودار السلام، وأحداث 11 سبتمبر 2001 والتي أودت بحياة 2997 شخص. وهو على رأس قائمة المطلوبين في العالم (على قائمة الانتربول)، ومكانه غير معلوم حتى الآن.
وُلد أسامة بن لادن في الرّياض في المملكة العربية السعوديّة لأب ثري وهو محمد بن لادن والذي كان يعمل في المقاولات وأعمال البناء وكان ذو علاقة قوية بعائلة آل سعود الحاكمة في المملكة العربية السعودية. وترتيب أسامة بين إخوانه وأخواته هو 17 من أصل 52 أخ وأخت. وتنحدر أسرة بن لادن من حضرموت في اليمن. ودرس في جامعة الملك عبدالعزيز في جدة وتخرج ببكالوريوس في الاقتصاد ليتولي إدارة أعمال شركة بن لادن وتحمّل بعض من المسؤولية عن أبيه في إدارة الشّركة. وبعد وفاة محمد بن لادن والد أسامة، ترك الأول ثروة تقدّر بـ 300 مليون دولار.
مكنته ثروته وعلاقاته من تحقيق أهدافه في دعم ما يعرف بالمجاهدين الأفغان ضّد الغزو السوفييتي لأفغانستان في العام 1979م. وفي العام 1984م، أسّس بن لادن منظّمة دعويّة وأسماها "مركز الخدمات" و قاعدة للتدريب على فنون الحرب و العمليات المسلحة بأسم "معسكر الفاروق" لدعم وتمويل المجهود الحربي "للمجاهدين الأفغان" ( و للمجاهدين العرب و الاجانب فيما بعد ). ودعمتهما ( المنظمة والمعسكر ) كلّ من أمريكا و باكستان والعربية السعودية وتلقّتا الدّعم المادّي والتّدريبات العسكرية والأمنية من هاتين الدولتين بل وتلقّتا التّدريبات العسكريّة من جهاز المخابرات الأمريكيّة حسب تقرير محطّة الـ BBC الإخباريّة.
وفي العام 1988م، بلور أسامة بن لادن عمله في أفغانستان بإنشاء سجلات القاعدة لتسجيل بيانات المجاهدين، وأنضم اليها المتطوّعون من "مركز الخدمات" ذوي الإختصاصات العسكرية والتأهيل القتالي. وأصبحت فيما بعد رمزاً لتنظيم المجاهدين. بإنسحاب القوّات السوفييتيّة من أفغانستان، وُصف بن لادن بالبطل من قبل العربية السعودية ولكن سرعان ما تلاشى هذا الدّعم حين هاجم بن لادن التواجد الأمريكي في السعودية إبّان الغزو العراقي للكويت في عام 1990م، بل وهاجم النظام السعودي لسماحه بتواجد القوات الأمريكية التى يصفها بن لادن "بالمادية" و "الفاسدة" وأسفر تلاشي الدعم السعودي بخروج بن لادن إلى السودان في نفس العام وتأسيس بن لادن لمركز عمليات جديد في السودان. ونجح بن لادن في تصدير أفكاره الثورية إلى جنوب شرق آسيا، والولايات المتحدة، وأفريقيا، وأوروبا. وبعدها غادر بن لادن السودان في العام 1996م، متوجّهاً إلى أفغانستان نتيجة علاقته القوية بجماعة "طالبان" التي كانت تسيّر أُمور أفغانستان والمسيطرة على الوضع في أفغانستان. وهناك أعلن الحرب على الولايات المتحدة الأمريكية.
وفي العام 1998م، تلاقت جهود أسامة بن لادن مع جهود أيمن الظواهري الأمين العام لتنظيم الجهاد الإسلامي المصري المحظور ، وأطلق الرّجلان فتوى تدعو إلى قتل الأمريكان وحلفاءهم أينما ثُقِفوا وجلائهم من المسجد الأقصى والمسجد الحرام. وبعد أحداث الحادي عشر من سبتمبر، وجّهت الولايات المتحدة أصابع الإتهام إلى بن لادن والقاعدة. وأثنى وبارك أسامة منفذي العمليات. وفي ديسمبر/كانون الأول من العام 2001م، تمكّنت القوات الأمريكية من الحصول على شريط فيديو يصوّر بن لادن مع جمعٌ من مؤّيديه يتحدّث في الشريط عن دهشته من كميّة الخراب والقتلى التي حلّت بالبرج وأن الحصيلة لم تكن بالحسبان بل فاقت توقّعاته، وتم أستخدام هذا الشريط كأحد الأدلة العلنية على أن لـ بن لادن علم مسبق بالحدث وتفاصيله، بينما تبقى بعض الأدلة غير معلن عنها لدواعي الأمن القومي والحرب على الإرهاب.
ولايزال أسامة بن لادن متواري عن الأنظار ومن غير المعروف إن كان لازال على قيد الحياة. وآخر مكان معلوم عن بن لادن هي مدينة "قندهار" في أفغانستان في العام 2001م. وطلبت الولايات المتحدة من طالبان تسليمها بن لادن ولكن أفغانستان طالبت الولايات المتحدة بأدلة على تورط أسامة بن لادن في أحداث الحادي عشر من سبتمبر/أيلول 2001م. وعلى أثر ذلك أجتاحت الولايات المتّحدة أفغانستان وأطاحت بحكومة طالبان إلا ان الولايات المتحدة لم تستطع القبض على بن لادن ولا يعلم إن كان القصف الذي قامت به الولايات المتحدة على جبال "تورا بورا" قد نال من بن لادن أم لا. وكان يُعتقد أن بن لادن قد مات موتةً طبيعيّة لإصابته بفشل كلوي والذي يستدعي عناية طبية فائقة والتي تصعب على بن لادن في وضعه الحالي. (كثير من التقارير تنفي إصابته بالفشل الكلوي كما في اللقاء مع طبيبه الخاص)، ولكن من حين لآخر، تظهر أشرطة مرئية و صوتية له متحدثا عن قضايا الساعة مما يؤكد أنه ما زال على قيد الحياة.
وفي 7 مايو 2004م، ظهر شريط صوتي منسوب لأسامة بن لادن يحث فيه على النيل من الحاكم المدني الأمريكي بول بريمر، ويرصد بن لادن مكافأة ذهبية لمن يتمكن من قتله. وشمل بن لادن كل من القائد العسكري للقوات الأمريكية في العراق ونائبه والأمين العام للأمم المتحدة كوفي أنان، ومبعوثه الخاص في العراق الأخضر الإبراهيمي. فهرس [إخفاء]
* 1 مابعد أحداث 11 سبتمبر * 2 رأي علماء المسلمين في ابن لادن * 3 انظر أيضاً * 4 مصادر
مابعد أحداث 11 سبتمبر
أختفى زعيم تنظيم القاعدة عن الانظار بعد الحرب على طالبان والقاعدة في أفغانستان ويعتقد أن أسامة بن لادن لايزال مختبئاً في المنطقة الجبلية لأفغانستان والمتاخمة للحدود الباكستانية. وفي شريط مرئي بثته قناة الجزيرة في 30 أكتوبر 2004م، برر بن لادن ولأول مرة سبب إقدام القاعدة على توجيه ضربة للمباني المدنية في الولايات المتحدة، فقد علل بن لادن الضربة "بعدما طفح الكيل بالمسلمين من إقدام إسرائيل على اجتياح لبنان عام 1982م، وما تفعله من أعمال إرهابية ضد المدنيين الأبرياء في فلسطين وماتشهده الساحة الإسلامية من أنتهاكات إسرائيلية حيال الشعب الفلسطيني. وما أيضا يراه كل العالم بأن أمريكا تساند وتبارك إسرائيل بما تفعله باحتلالها أراض ليست حقا لها لا في تاريخ أو حضارة. وأدعى ان الرئيس الأمريكي مخطئ بتفسيره أن القاعدة مناهضة للحرية ويستند قوله على أن القاعدة تقول الحقيقة التي لبثت أمريكا دوما بإخفائها".
رأي علماء المسلمين في ابن لادن
لا يعرف عن ابن لادن طلبه للعلم الشرعي، ورغم ذلك فقد هاجم علماء المسلمين لأنهم في رأيه يوافقون على ظلم أمريكا وإسرائيل. لكن ما يفعله ويدعو إليه هو سبب لزيادة الظلم حسب من لا يوافقه. ورغم أنه ذُكر أن الشيخ ابن عثيمين مدحه !، إلا أن ذلك كان قبل خروجه على أمريكا وتطور فكره إلى درجة الإرهاب للعدو والتكفير لغير المسلمين، وسرعان ما أدانه ابن عثيمين وغيره. [1]
انظر أيضاً اقرأ نصا ذا علاقة بأسامة بن لادن، في ويكي مصدر.
تم الاسترجاع من "http://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A3%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%A9_%D8%A8%D9%86_%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%AF%D9%86" تصنيفات الصفحة: حماية جزئية | معارضون سعوديون | إسلاميون | القاعدة | مواليد 1957 | فارون مطلوبون من قبل الولايات المتحدة تصنيف مخفي: مقالات مختارة في ceb معاينة
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* آخر تعديل لهذه الصفحة كان في 20:23، 27 يوليو 2008. * كل النصوص منشورة تحت رخصة جنو للوثائق الحرة (اقرأ حقوق التأليف والنشر للحصول على التفاصيل). ويكيبيديا® علامة مسجلة لمؤسسة ويكيميديا. * سياسة الخصوصية * حول ويكيبيديا * عدم مسؤولية
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千龙网北京7月31日讯（记者 周翔）幼儿在月嫂护理期间因左腿骨折住院，幼儿家长遂将月嫂所属家政公司诉至法院，要求返还相关费用。日前，海淀法院审结了此案，依法认定家政公司需承担责任，判决家政公司支付幼儿医疗费、鉴定费共计3万余元。
2007年8月29日，楠楠的母亲与某家政公司签订，家政公司指派服务员提供婴幼儿护理服务，楠楠的母亲每月支付 2000元服务费。2007年9月3日，楠楠的父母离京，家政服务员于当月9日发现楠楠腿部受伤，就带其前往医院，后诊断为左股骨干骨折住院治疗。
家政公司在审理中对楠楠的骨折原因提出异议，认为楠楠没有摔没有碰，可能是孩子由于缺钙等自身条件导致的骨折。后经鉴定，楠楠的左股骨干骨折为外伤所致。
法院审理后认为，楠楠的母亲与家政公司签订的家政服务合同，合同有效。在家政公司提供服务期间，楠楠出现左股骨干骨折，经鉴定为外伤所致，家政公司指定的服务员在履行合同期间未尽到看护义务，故楠楠的母亲要求家政公司返还服务费并支付医疗费等相关损失费用的合理部分，应予支持，最后，法院作出了上述判决。
宣判后，家政公司已提出上诉。
千龙网北京7月30日讯（记者周翔）今天，市商务局召开了“履行承诺、周到服务”“导吃导购网”为奥运餐饮服务工作会议。会上，相关人员介绍了“导吃导购网”网约订餐服务功能，已加入 “导吃导购网”的102家餐饮企业也承诺将保证在网上订餐的客人到店里能有桌位，并享受打折优惠。
在今天的会议上，相关负责人介绍了“导吃导购网”网约订餐服务功能及《享受北京?特色餐厅》丛书的编制过程和主要内容、全聚德代表参加“导吃导购网”网约订餐活动的餐饮企业宣读了“‘履行承诺、周到服务’为奥运餐饮服务承诺书”，并举行了《享受北京?特色餐厅》丛书的首发仪式。
据介绍，参加了“导吃导购网”网上订餐服务功能的餐厅，将保证提供的信息真实、准确，保证为网上订餐者预留桌位，并按规定设置“导吃导购网订餐预订卡”，保证兑现到位。市商务局还要求各餐饮企业，要注意及时浏览网上订餐的客户，优先保证网上订餐客户的桌位，因各种原因导致网上订餐饮的客户订餐困难的，要立即与客户取得联系，不能出现在网上订了餐的客户来餐厅无桌位的现象。此外，市商务局还强调，这102家餐饮企业，对通过网上订餐的客户，一定要保证承诺的内容兑现，尤其是折扣率的兑现，不能出现客人不问就不给折扣或少给折扣的现象，一定要做到诚信经营。
今天同时举行首发仪式的《享受北京?特色餐厅》丛书分为中国风味、清真风味、外国风味三册。中国风味餐馆共161家，清真风味餐馆共100家、外国风味餐馆共39家。书中用中、英双语详细介绍每家餐馆的特色类型、地址电话、行车路线、消费价格等方面；丰富的图片展示了每家餐馆的店面形象和特色菜品，并制作了每家餐馆的地理方位图。
目前，第一批8万册丛书已经编印完毕，准备在108家奥运签约饭店和特色餐厅及部分主要公共场所免费发放。将于8月4日之前通过快递方式派发到相关部门和300家特色餐厅。
千龙网北京8月1日讯（记者 周翔 通讯员 肖利民）家住本市丰台区的王伟怎么也想不到，自己与一名女孩的“一夜情”竟然让自己陷入一场敲诈圈套中。今天，大兴区人民法院开庭审理了这起敲诈案，两名被告人黄营、刘杰分别被判处有期徒刑一年和有期徒刑一年，缓刑一年。
2007年12月，家住本市丰台区的王伟通过网上聊天，认识了一个网名叫“无情”的女孩，经过几次交谈。二人谈得很是投机，“无情”约王伟在本市丰台区新发地一饭店见面。二人见面后感觉不错，隔日便又在一商务酒店相约，吃过饭后，情意绵绵的二人开房发生了关系。之后不久，二人又在另一旅馆内开房住了两夜。
2008年2月22日，王伟接到“无情”的电话，约他在大兴区长途站路北的网吧见面，王伟到了网吧，刚刚来到“无情”的身边，身后突然出现一名男子，打了他两拳并揪住他的衣服将他带上了车，“无情”则与另一名男子上了另一辆车同行。车一直开到本市通洲区马驹桥镇一处桥下，几名男子下车后强迫王伟将衣服脱光，并用皮带抽他后背，还让王伟在河里站了三、四分钟。最后，抽他的那名男子又让他上岸跪在地下。
经过对话，王伟才得知，“无情”原名刘丽，四个男子中，抽他的那名男子是刘丽的丈夫黄营，另一人是刘丽的弟弟刘杰。黄营称自己得了性病，是因为王伟与妻子发生关系才传染给他的。为此，黄营逼着王伟写了两张欠款3万元的欠条，做为付给黄营的补偿费，并将王伟开的车做为抵押，才放王伟离开。惊魂不定的王伟下车后马上到公安机关报了案。
公安机关先后将刘杰、黄营抓获后，黄营还振振有词的辩解是王伟传染给自己性病，此欠款是赔偿自己的补偿费。公安机关将三人送到医院检查后，证实黄营的确是得了性病，但刘丽与王伟却没有性病，黄营这时才无话可说。
大兴区人民法院经审理认为，被告人黄营、刘杰以刘丽与王伟发生性关系得性病为由，殴打、要挟方式敲诈王伟，其行为已构成敲诈勒索罪，遂判处黄营有期徒刑一年，张杰判决有期徒刑一年，缓刑一年。
ماهاتما گاندی
از ویکی‌پدیا، دانشنامهٔ آزاد.
پرش به: ناوبری, جستجو
مهانداس کارامچاند گاندی (به خط دونگری: मोहनदास करमचन्द गांधी؛ گجراتی: મોહનદાસ કરમચંદ ગાંધી؛ زاده: ۲ اکتبر ۱۸۶۹ - درگذشت: ۳۰ ژانویه ۱۹۴۸) (۱۰ مهر ۱۲۴۸-۹ بهمن ۱۳۲۶) رهبر سیاسی و معنوی هندیها بود که ملت هند را در راه آزادی از استعمار امپراتوری بریتانیا رهبری کرد. در طول زندگیش استفاده از هر نوع ترور و خشونت برای رسیدن به مقاصد را رد میکرد. فلسفهٔ ضدخشونت گاندی که خود نام ساتیاگراها (در سانسکریت به معنای تلاش و کوشش برای رسیدن به حقیقت؛ تحت‌اللفظی: محکم گرفتن حقیقت) روی بسیاری از جنبش‌های مقاومت ضدخشونت در سراسر جهان و تا امروز تأثیر گذارده‌است.
از زمانی که وی مسئولیت رهبری نبرد برای آزادی و کنگره ملی هند در سال ۱۹۱۸ (۱۲۹۶) را به عهده گرفت، به عنوان نمادی ملی شناخته شد و میلیون‌ها نفر از مردم او را با لقب ماهاتما یا روح بزرگ یاد می‌کردند. هر چند که او از القاب افتخارآمیز بیزار بود ولی امروز هم همگی او را با نام ماهاتما گاندی می‌شناسند. سوای اینکه بسیاری او را به عنوان یکی از بزرگترین رهبران تاریخ تلقی می‌کنند، مردم هند از او با عنوان «پدر ملت» یا باپو (در هندی به معنای پدر) یاد می‌کنند. زادروز وی در هند به عنوان یک روز تعطیل ملی است و گاندی جایانتی نام دارد.
گاندی توانست با استفاده از شیوهٔ ضدخشونت نافرمانی مدنی استقلال هند را از بریتانیا بگیرد و در نهایت دست امپراتوری بریتانیا را از هند کوتاه کند. شیوهٔ مقاومت آرام وی به مستعمرات دیگر هم نفوذ کرده و آنها را در راه استقلال میهن خود تشویق میکرد. اصل ساتیاگراهای گاندی روی بسیاری از فعالان آزادیخواه نظیر دکتر مارتین لوترکینگ، تنزین گیاتسو، لخ والسا، استفان بیکو، آنگ سان سو کی و نلسون ماندلا تأثیر گذاشت. البته همهٔ این رهبران نتوانستند کاملاً به اصل سخت ضدخشونت و ضدمقاومت وی وفادار بمانند.
گاندی همیشه می‌گفت که اصول او ساده هستند و از باورهای سنتی هندو به نام‌های ساتیا (حقیقت) و آهیمسا (ضدخشونت) گرفته شده‌اند. او می‌گفت «من چیز جدیدی ندارم که به دنیا یاد بدهم. حقیقت و ضدخشونت بودن هم‌سن کوه‌ها هستند».
فهرست مندرجات
[نهفتن]
* ۱ دوران طفولیت تا جوانی
* ۲ اصول گاندی
* ۳ حقیقت
* ۴ عدم خشونت
* ۵ گیاه خواری
* ۶ آیین برهما
* ۷ ساده زیستی
* ۸ ایمان
* ۹ منبع
* ۱۰ پانویس‌ها
* ۱۱ پیوند به بیرون
[ویرایش] دوران طفولیت تا جوانی
گاندی و همسرش کاستوربا (۱۹۰۲)
گاندی و همسرش کاستوربا (۱۹۰۲)
«مهانداس کارامچاند گاندی» در سال ۱۸۶۹ در یک خانواده هندو در گجرات هند دیده به جهان گشود. گاندی در آغوش مادری فداکار رشد میکرد و از تاثیرات جائین گجرات، رنگ و شکل می‌گرفت او از همان سنین کودکی با مرام آسیب نرساندن به موجودات زنده خوگرفت و به گیاهخواری، روزه داری برای خودسازی و خالص نمودن خویش وزندگی توام با گذشت اعضای فرق ومذاهب مختلف اهتمام ورزید. خانواده اواز طبقه «وایشا» یا تجار هندی بودند.
در ماه می ۱۸۸۳ در حالیکه ۱۳ سال داشت با دختری هم سن خود ازدواج نمود؛ والدینش هر دو آنها را اداره می‌کردند(همسرش کاستوربا یا کاستوربای نام داشت که وی را «با» صدا می‌زدند).
در آن زمان در لندنپایتخت یک کشور امپریالیستی زندگی سختی را می‌گذراند، چرا که برای مادرش قسم یاد کرده بود از خوردن گوشت، الکل و لاقیدی جنسی احتراز نماید. اگر چه سعی میکرد آداب وسنن «انگلیسی» را بیاموزد - و مثلا به کلاس آموزش رقص برود - ولی هرگز خود را به خوردن گوشت راضی نکرد اما سیر کردن خود با کلم و گیاهان دیگر هم در آن کشور ساده نبود. زن صاحب خانه او را به یک رستوران خام خواری راهنمایی کرد.
به انجمن خام خواران پیوست و حتی به عنوان عضو کمیتهآن در آمد و یک مقر محلی نیز برای آن انجمن دایر نمود. بعدها این تجربیات گرانبهای خود را در امر سازماندهی موسسات به کار گرفت. برخی از همقطاران گیاهخوار وخام خوار او عضو انجمن فلاسفه الهیات بودند که در سال ۱۸۷۵ تاسیس شده بود و هدف ترویج برادری جهانی را دنبال میکرد و به مطالعه بوداگرایی و ادبیات هندو برهمنی می‌پرداخت. آنان گاندی را تشویق کردند تا به مطالعه « باگاواد جیتا » بپردازد.وقتی به هند بازگشت، در امر وکالت در بومبایموفقیت چندانی نداشت ولذا به شغل پاره وقت تدریس در یک دبیرستان روی آورد. پس از مدتی به راجکوت بازگشت وبه عریضه نویسی برای شاکیان مشغول شد. ولی مجوز این کار را به او ندادند و مجبور شد کارش را تعطیل نماید.
[ویرایش] اصول گاندی
[ویرایش] حقیقت
گاندی زندگی خویش را وقف آشکار ساختن حقیقت یا ساتیا کرد. اوتلاش میکرد با یادگیری و درس گرفتن از اشتباهات خود و عملکرد خود به حقیقت دست یابد. وی شرح حال زندگی خویش را تحت عنوان «ماجرای تجربیات من با کشف حقیقت » نوشته‌است.
گاندی اعلام کرد که مهمترین نبرد او تلاشی بود که برای شکست شیاطین درونی ترسها و ناامنی‌های خود به عمل آورده‌است. گاندی خلاصه‌ای از اعتقادات خویش را درقالب «خداوند حقیقت است» مطرح نمود وبعدها دیدگاه‌های خویش را اصلاح کرد وبیان داشت که «حقیقت خداوند است». اولین بیان ممکن است مخاطب را با این شبهه مواجه کند که گاندی از حقیقت برای شرح دیدگاه خویش نسبت به خداوند ونه تعریف شالوده وی استعفا کرده‌است ساتیا یا حقیقت در فلسفه گاندی همان خداوند وی تمام ویژگی‌های مفهوم هندویی خدارا درفلسفه خویش آورده‌است (برهمن).
[ویرایش] عدم خشونت
مفهوم عدم خشونت (آهیما) و عدم مقاومت درتفکر مذهبی هندی تاریخی کهن دارد ودر مضامین مذهبی هندو بودائیت، جین، یهود ومسیحی به کرات دیده می‌شود. گاندی درشرح فلسفه وشیوه زندگی خود در خود بیوگرافی نویسی اش چنین آورده :
«وقتی ناامید می‌شوم بخاطر می‌آورم که در طول تاریخ راه حق و عشق همواره پیروز بوده‌است حکمرانان و قاتل در برهه‌ای شکست ناپذیر جلوه می‌کنند ولی درنهایت همه آنها سقوط کرده‌اند - همیشه به این واقعیت فکر کنید.»
«چه فرقی می‌کند که مرگ وبی خانمانی وبی سرپرستی ریشه در حکومتهای استبدادی داشته باشد یا با نام عدس آزادی و دموکراسی ایجاد گردد ؟»
«ضربه دربرابرضربه و چشم در برابر چشم دنیا را کور می‌سازد.»
«من بنا به دلایل زیادی آماده مردن شده‌ام و نه برای کشتن.»
گاندی در اجرای اصول مورد نظر خودهرگز از مسیر منطق خارج نشد. در سال ۱۹۴۰ که حمله آلمان نازی به جزایر بریتانیایی اجتناب ناپذیر به نظر می‌رسید گاندی خطاب به مردم بریتانیا پیامی تحت عنوان عدم خشونت در جنگ و صلح چنین گفت :
«دوست دارم اسلحه را زمین بگذارید چرا که کمکی برای حفظ جان و انسانیت شما نمی‌کند. با سلاح برداشتن و وارد جنگ شدن هیتلر و موسولینی‌ها را دعوت می‌کنید تا وارد کشور شما شوند و داشته هایتان را به یغما ببرند. اگر این آقایان محترم تصمیم بگیرند کشورتان را اشغال نمایند آنها را پس می‌زنید. اگر شما را در بیطرفی خود رها نکردند آنگاه زن و مرد و کودک از خاک خود دفاع خواهید کرد واجازه نخواهید داد به اهداف خود برسند.»
حتی در ۱۹۴۶ به لوئیس فیشر حسب حال نویس گفت:[۱]
«یهودیان خود را به چاقوی قصاب سپرده‌اند آنان باید خود را از فراز صخره‌ها به دریا پرتاب کنند.»
اما گاندی می‌دانست که عدم توسل به خشونت مستلزم اعتقادی راسخ و شهامتی باورنکردنی است که البته می‌دانست در همگان وجود ندارد لذا سعی میکرد به همه تفهیم کند که لازم نیست همه دست از خشونت بردارند بویژه اگر خشونت در مقابل ترس باشد:
«گاندی نمی‌خواست ایجاد ترس از سلاح برداشتن یا ترس از احساس ناتوانی مقابله و مقاومت را درجنبش ساتیاگراها مشاهده کند. لذا در نوشته‌هایش آورده : قویا معتقدم هرجا بین خشونت وترس گرفتار شدیم باید خشونت را بپذیریم.» [۲]
"درهر جلسه‌ای تاکید می‌کنم که تاراه بدون خشونت سبب تسلیم افراد صاحب قدرت درمقابل قدرتمند تر از خود نشود باید این راه را برگزید اما اگر با خشونت بتوانند مقابل این وضعیت بایستند وتنها راه احقاق حق خشونت باشد بی هیچ تاملی باید سلاح برداشت من هرگز نمی‌پسندم که افراد شجاع بخاطر رعایت اصل عدم خشونت دربرابر نفوذ نیروهای ترسوی بد شاه فان تسلیم شوند و از آنها بترسند که مبادا خشونت ایجاد گردد. شجاعت فقط در خوب تیر اندازی کردن خلاصه نمی‌شود بلکه جلوگیری از مرگ وآماده سینه سپر کردن دربرابر گلوله دشمن هر دو از ابعاد شجاعت هستند. [۳]
[ویرایش] گیاه خواری
گاندی در دوران کودکی گوشت خوردن را تجربه کرد. چرا که اولا فردی کنجکاو بود وثانیا دوست صمیمی وی شیخ مهتاب او را به خوردن گوشت ترغیب میکرد. ایده گیاهخواری ونخوردن گوشت ریشه‌های عمیقی در آداب و سنن هندوها وجائین‌ها درهند وسرزمین مادری هند یعنی گجرات دارد به طوریکه بسیاری از هندوها گوشت نمی‌خوردند وخام خوار بودند وخانواده گاندی هم مستثنی نبود. گاندی پیش از رفتن به لندن برای ادامه تحصیل به مادرش، پوتلی بایی، وعمویش، بچارجی سوامی، قول داد که در لندن لب به گوشت نزند الکل مصرف نکند ودرگیر بی بند وباری جنسی نشود. او به امساک خویش پایبند ماند وبجای تلاش برای تعیین نوع خوراک به ارائه فلسفه‌ای همت گماشت که در طول زندگی آنرا مبنای امور خود قرار دهد. وقتی به سن میانسالی رسید یک خام خوار تمام عیار بود. وی مقاله‌ای در این مورد نوشت که بخشهایی از آن در نشریه انجمن خام خواران لندن بنام گیاهخواری منتشر شد. دراین ایام افراد صاحب نظر زیادی به او الهام دادند وحتی با رئیس انجمن خام خواران لندن دکتر ژوسیا اولد فیلد دوست شد.
مهانداس جوان همچنین با مطالعه کتاب هنری استفن سالت با رهبر پیشگام گیاهخوری دیدار کرد وبا اوهمراه شد. گاندی زمان زیادی از حضور خود در لندن را صرف ترویج گیاهخواری کرد. از نظر وی تغذیه گیاهی نه تنها نیازهای بدن را تامین میکرد بلکه در مقایسه با مصرف گوشت مقرون به صرفه هم بود. کما اینکه امروزه نیز گوشت در مقایسه با میوه جات، حبوبات و سایر گیاهان گرانتر است. همچنین بسیاری از هندیهای وقت که با کمی درآمد دست به گریبان بودند خام خواری را نه یک سمت روحانی صرف بلکه یک رویه عملی و مناسب می‌انگاشتند. اودر مدتهای طولانی روزه می‌گرفت واز آن بعنوان یک ابزار مبارزاتی استفاده میکرد. با اعتصاب غذا آنقدر به مخالفان فشار می‌آورد تا خواسته‌های او را تامین کنند. درخود بیوگرافی وی اشاره کرده‌است. که خام خواری سرآغاز پای بندی جدی وی به آیین برهمایی بوده بدون کنترل جامعی برنوع خوراک، وی در گام برداشتن در مسیر آئین برهما به شکست می‌رسید.
[ویرایش] آیین برهما
گاندی در سن ۳۶ سالگی از روابط جنسی کلا دست کشید ودرحالیکه زن داشت از نزدیکی با وی امساک کرد. این ایده به شدت متاثر از فلسفه برهمایی و آیین روحی وعملی پاکسازی درونی بود که عمدتا نیز با پرهیز جنسی همراه بود. گاندی آیین برهمایی را ابزاری برای نزدیکی به خداوند وشرط اولیه خودشناسی می‌انگاشت درشرح حال او اشاره شد که اهتمام زیادی برای مبارزه با شهوات وغیرت داشته که مورد اخیر از غیرت به عروس دوران کودکی(کاستوربا ) دروی شکل گرفته بود. او امساک جنسی را یک الزام مشخص می‌انگاشت وآنرا ابزاری برای عشق ورزیدن ونه شهوت رانی می‌دانست. از دید گاندی آیین برهما به منزله کنترل حواس از طریق تفکر، کلام و عمل بود. [۴]
[ویرایش] ساده زیستی
مجسمه ماهاتما گاندی در پارك میدان یونیون نیویورك
مجسمه ماهاتما گاندی در پارك میدان یونیون نیویورك
گاندی مجدانه براین باور پافشاری میکرد که فردی که به جامعه خدمت می‌کند باید زندگی ساده‌ای داشته باشد واین ساده زیستی را درآیین برهمایی جاری می‌انگاشت. او با رد زندگی به شیوه غربی به روند ساده زیستی را در آفریقای جنوبی درپیش گرفت واز آن بعنوان تلاش برای رسیدن به نقطه صفر یاد میکرد وبدین ترتیب هم درهزینه‌های غیر ضروری صرفه جویی می‌نمود وهم ساده زیستی را دنبال می‌نمود. اوحتی لباسهایش را خودش می‌شست.[۵] در یک مورد او هدایایی را که به خاطر خدماتش به جامعه به وی اهدا شده بود، باز پس داد.[۶]
گاندی درهر هفته یک روز را روزه سکوت سپری میکرد. امتناع از حرف زدن رامایه آرامش درونی می‌انگاشت این آموزه را هم از آیین برهما واصل موناشافتی یعنی سکوت وآرامش داشت. در این ایام سکوت با نوشتن برروی کاغذ با دیگران ارتباط برقرار می‌ساخت. گاندی از سن ۳۷ سالگی به مدت سه سال و نیم از خواندن روزنامه‌ها خودداری نمود واظهار می‌داشت وضعیت نابهنجار جهان وامور جهانی آرامش درونی او را بهم می‌ریزد. او دربازگشت به هند واشتغال به شغل حقوقی از پوشش غربی دست برداشت اگر چه نشان از ثروت و موفقیت داشت. اولباسی برتن کرد که مورد قبول فقیرترین افراددرهند بود واز پارچه تولیدی داخل موسوم به خادی استفاده می‌نمود. گاندی وپیروانش پارچه لباسهایشان را از نخی که خود می‌رشتند تهیه می‌کردند ودیگران را نیز به این کار تشویق می‌نمودند. درحالی که اکثر کارگران هندی بیکار بودند لباسهای مورد نیازشان را از تولیدیهای صنعتی تحت تملک انگلیسی‌ها خریداری می‌نمودند.
گاندی معتقد بود چنانکه هندیها لباسهای خود را خودشان تهیه کنند ضربه اقتصادی سنگینی بر پیکره استعمارگران انگلیسی درهند وارد خواهند آورد. متعاقبا علامت چرخ نخ ریسی برروی پرچم کنگره ملی هند نقش بست. وی برای نشان دادن ساده زیستی درسراسر زندگی خود فقط یک دست هوتی می‌پوشید.
[ویرایش] ایمان
گاندی سمریتی (خانه‌ای که گاندی 4 ماه پایانی زندگی خود را در آن گذراند اکنون به یک یادمان در دهلی نو مبدل شده‌است.)
گاندی سمریتی (خانه‌ای که گاندی 4 ماه پایانی زندگی خود را در آن گذراند اکنون به یک یادمان در دهلی نو مبدل شده‌است.)
گاندی یک هندوبود و تمام عمر براین آیین استوار ماند وبسیاری از اصول خویش را از هندواقتباس نمود. بعنوان یک هندوی عامی معتقد بود همه ادیان برابرندودر برابر تلاش‌هایی که برای تغییر دین وی به عمل آمد مقاومت نشان داد او شدیدا به خدااعتقاد داشت و لذا به مطالعه تمام ادیان بزرگ اهتمام ورزید. درموردهندوئیسم چنین می‌گوید:
«تا آنجا که به من مربوط می‌شود هندوئیسم روح مرا ارضا می‌کند و وجود مراسیراب می‌نماید. هرگاه تردید وناامیدی درمن قوت می‌گیرد وهیچ پرتوامیدی را در افق پیش روی خودمشاهده نمی‌کنم به باگاواد جیتا رجوع می‌کنم وسطری از آن را پیدا می‌کنم که به من آرامش دهد. بلافاصله لبخند بر لبانم نقش می‌بندد و اندوه وغم را به فراموشی می‌سپارم. زندگی من مملو از تراژدی بود واگر تعالیم این کتاب نبود شاید خیلی زود از پا می‌افتادم.»
گاندی معتقد بود که اساس و شالوده هر دین را حقیقت وعشق تشکیل میدهد (محبت، عدم خشونت یا همان ترکیب حکم طلایی ) اوهرگونه تعصب کور وگم بودن رفتارهای نادرست درهر دین وآیینی را زیرسوال میبرد وبه طرز خستگی ناپذیری در پی اصلاح اجتماعی برمی آمد. برخی از اظهار نظرهای وی درمورد ادیان مختلف به شرح زیر مطرح شده‌اند :
«لذا اگر می‌توانستم مسیحیت را بپذیرم وآنرا بزرگترین و کاملترین دین قبول کنم قطعا هندوئیسم را آنطور که الان هستم قبول نمی‌داشتم. من اشکالات و نواقص هندو را می‌شناسم. اگر نجاست در هندو بوده قطعا به گوشت خام مربوط می‌شده نه گوشت پخته. نمی‌توانم سرمنشا اختلاف ادیان را درک کنم معنی اینکه چنین چیزی در قالب وداس یا کلام خدا مطرح می‌شود چیست؟ اگر چیزی از جانب خداوند الهام شود پس چرا در مورد قرآن و انجیل باید تردید کرد؟ دوستان مسیحی من سعی کردند مرا به مسیحیت سوق دهند و همین طور دوستان مسلمان من. عبداله شیت به شدت مرا به مطالعه اسلام ترغیب میکرد البته همیشه درمورد زیبایی دین اسلام حرفهایی برای گفتن داشت.»
«به محض اینکه از مسیر اخلاق منحرف شویم دیگر شخصیت دینی نخواهیم داشت. در دین چیزی وجود ندارد که از چارچوب اخلاق خارج باشد. مثلا انسان نمی‌تواند دروغگو و بیرحم باشد ودرعین حال مدعی شود خدا را دردرون خویش احساس می‌کند.»
«کلام محمد گنجینه عقل است، نه تنها برای مسلمانان بلکه برای کل بشریت.»
اوبعدها که با سوال آیا یک هندو بودی مواجه شد جواب داد :
«آری من یک هندو هستم. همچنین یک مسیحی یک مسلمان و یک بودایی و یهودی می‌باشم.»
گاندی برخلاف خود آنها که با یکدیگر درتضاد بودند دستورات این ادیان را همسو ویکسان می‌دانست. البته درمباحث مطروحه دو تفاوت بارز فلسفی بین دوگروه بزرگ هندی درآن عصر را شرح داده‌است. در۱۵ ژانویه ۱۹۳۴ زلزله مهیبی بیمار را لرزانید و خسارات وتلفات سنگینی برجای گذاشت. گاندی این حادثه‌ها را نتیجه گناه افراد رده بالای هندو می‌دانست چرا که معتقد بود خوراکی‌های غیر مجاز نجس را به معابدشان برده‌اند. گاندی به ترویج پرهیز از نجاست گوشت اهتمام زیادی داشت وافراد پای بند به این امساک را مردم کریشنا می‌نامید. اما تاگور با این موضع گاندی مخالف بود ومی گفت زمین لرزه تنها منشا طبیعی دارد و نه اخلاقی اما سوء رفتار درمعابد هندو را نیز نفی میکرد.
[ویرایش] منبع
* انگلیسی،نسخه: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mohandas_Karamchand_Gandhi&oldid=206294194
* [میراث مهاتما گاندی پس از شصت سال ]
* ویکی‌پدیا:پروژهٔ مترجمان/ماهاتما گاندی
[ویرایش] پانویس‌ها
1. ↑ Trivia Hall of Fame — Mahatma Gandhi. Retrieved from the Wayback Machine, ۱۴ February ۲۰۰۴.
2. ↑ بوندورانت، ص ۲۸
3. ↑ بوندورانت، ص ۱۳۹
4. ↑ The Story of My Experiments with truth — An Autobiography, p. ۱۷۶.
5. ↑ The Story of My Experiments with truth — An Autobiography, p. ۱۷۷.
6. ↑ The Story of My Experiments with truth — An Autobiography, p. ۱۸۳.
[ویرایش] پیوند به بیرون
ویکی‌گفتآورد
مجموعه‌ای از نقل‌قول‌های مربوط به
ماهاتما گاندی
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圣雄甘地
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“甘地”重定向至此。关于甘地之其他意思，详见“甘地 (消歧义)”。
莫罕达斯·卡拉姆昌德·甘地
मोहनदास करमचंद गाँधी
圣雄甘地
生于 1869年10月2日
英属印度博尔本德尔
卒于 1948年1月30日 （78岁）
印度 印度新德里
政党 印度国民大会党
母校 伦敦大学学院
职业 律师、印度独立运动领袖
莫罕达斯·卡拉姆昌德·甘地（英文：Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi；古吉拉特语：मोहनदास करमचंद गाँधी，1869年10月2日－1948年1月30日），尊称圣雄甘地，是印度民族主义运动和国大党领袖。他既是印度的国父，也是印度最伟大的政治领袖。他带领国家迈向独立，脱离英国的殖民统治。他的“非暴力”的哲学思想，也就是他说的“satyagraha”，影响了全世界的民族主义者和那些争取和平变革的国际运动。
通过“非暴力”的公民不合作，甘地使印度摆脱了英国的统治。这也激发了其他殖民地的人们起来为他们的独立而奋斗。最终大英帝国分崩离析了，取而代之的是英联邦，或者更准确一点是联邦（因为“英”这个前缀于1946年没有了，变成了Commonwealth of Nations）。 甘地的主要信念是“satyagraha”，英语译成“truth force”，意为“精神的力量”、“真理之路”、“追求真理”等。 这鼓舞了其他的民主运动人士，如马丁·路德·金，曼德拉等人。他经常说他的价值观很简单，那就是（是从传统的印度教信仰演化来的）: 真理（satya）、非暴力（ahimsa）。
目录
[隐藏]
* 1 经历
o 1.1 早期生涯
o 1.2 南非的公民权利运动
o 1.3 印度独立运动
o 1.4 二战时期
o 1.5 印巴分治与暗杀
* 2 个人生活信条
* 3 荣誉头衔
* 4 艺术作品中的甘地
* 5 其他
* 6 参见
* 7 参考资料
* 8 外部链接
[编辑] 经历
[编辑] 早期生涯
甘地和他的妻子（1902年）
甘地和他的妻子（1902年）
甘地出生在印度西部的港口城市博尔本德尔（当时是印度的一个土邦，今属古吉拉特邦管辖）的印度教家庭，他的父亲，卡拉姆昌德·甘地（Karamchand Gandhi）是当时的土邦首相。他的母亲，Putlibai，是他父亲的第四任妻子。他们是商人的后代（“甘地”的意思是食品商人）。十三岁时，他和同岁的Kasturbai成婚。他们有四个孩子，全是男孩。Harilal Gandhi, 生于1888；Manilal Gandhi，生于1892；Ramdas Gandhi，生于1897年; 最小的Devdas Gandhi，生于1900年。
1888年，也就是他十九岁时，留学英国，在伦敦大学学院学习法律。在伦敦期间，他恪守着离开印度时母亲对他的教诲，不吃荤和不酗酒。尽管他试图英国化，例如，上舞蹈课程，但是他却不吃房东太太给他的羊肉和卷心菜。她给他介绍了一家伦敦的素食餐馆，在那里，甘地了解并且成为了一个素食主义者。这可以认为是他有意识选择非暴力的第一步。他参加了素食社团，并且当选执行委员会委员，他还成立了一个地方分会。 据他说，这给了他组织和运行社团很有价值的经验。他遇到的素食主义者，有些是神智学社团的成员。神智学社团由Madame Blavatsky于1875年成立，作为大学兄弟会的一个延伸。他们致力于研习印度婆罗门教和佛教的经典。他们鼓励甘地阅读《薄伽梵歌》。此时，甘地还没有皈依宗教，但是开始阅读关于印度教，天主教和其它宗教著作。
回国后，他取得了英帝国的律师资格。他试图在孟买作为律师工作。但是工作没有起色。
[编辑] 南非的公民权利运动
1893年4月, 一家印度公司派甘地到南非工作。他看到印度移民在南非的公民自由和政治权利在很大程度上被剥夺的现状，很是灰心。这些移民主要是契约佣工和个体商人。于是他开始抗议和游说，反对针对南非印度人的法律和种族歧视。有人因此批评他没有将抗议的对象扩展到针对全体非洲人的法律。在他在南非的早期，有一件事常被人提起。那就是他买了一张一等车厢的车票，拒绝换到三等车厢，被人从彼得马里茨堡火车中扔了出去。1903年6月，甘地组织了一场抗议运动针对“黑法令”（The Black Act)，这个法令强制所有在南非的亚洲人接受登记。1913年9月，他参加了一场抗议不按照天主教仪式结婚就无效的运动。
1913年11月6日，甘地被捕，当时他正领导一群印度矿工在南非游行。1914年，政府允诺减少在南非对印度人的歧视。
在南非的这些年里，甘地从《薄伽梵歌》和列夫·托尔斯泰的作品中汲取灵感。托尔斯泰在十九世纪八十年代转变成了一个个人形式的基督教无政府主义者。 甘地翻译了托尔斯泰的《给一个印度人的信》[1]。这封信是托尔斯泰在1908年写给一个激进的印度民族主义者的。他们一直通信到1910年托尔斯泰去世为止。托尔斯泰的信引用了《韦达经》的印度哲学和印度教大神毗湿奴（此神的中文译名很不统一）的名言来表达他对逐渐高涨的印度民族主义的看法。除此之外，甘地还受到美国作家亨利·戴维·梭罗作品《论公民的不服从》的启发。总之，在南非的岁月是甘地作为一个社会政治活动家的形成时期。 此时公民不服从以及非暴力的抵抗的概念和技术开始形成。
一战时，甘地回到了印度，在那里他发动运动，号召印度人参加英印陆军。他认为这样表现对英国的忠诚就会使英国同意印度作为英帝国的一个自治政体而达到印度自治。但是，这没有成功。
[编辑] 印度独立运动
一战后，他参与了国大党的独立运动。他以他的公民不服从、不合作，和绝食抗议等的政治主张，获得了世界范围的关注。他被英国当局多次逮捕。例如，1922年3月18日， 他因为他领导的公民不服从判刑六年，但是只是服刑两年。
甘地别的成功的独立运动的战略还有swadeshi政策，即抵制外国产的商品，特别是英国产品。与此相关的还有他的关于所有印度人应该穿土布的宣传。反对用英国的织布。甘地宣传说印度妇女，不论贫富，应该每天花一定的时间织布，来支持独立运动。那时很多人认为这些独立运动这些事，不适合妇女参加。甘地的这个策略把妇女加入到独立运动中来。
1919年的阿姆利则血案后，他支持独立的立场更加坚决。当时英国政府和廓尔喀雇佣兵向和平政治集会的人群开枪， 数以百计的锡克教徒，印度教徒，还有穆斯林被杀。除了抵制英国产品外，甘地还极力鼓励人们抵制英国学校，法律机构，辞退政府工作， 拒绝缴税， 抛弃英国给的称号和荣誉。
1920年4月，他当选印度自治同盟的主席。1921年12月，他又被授予国大党在同盟内的执行代表。在他的领导下，国大党重组，制定了新的章程。 新党章规定他的目标是争取独立。任何人只要交纳一定的象征性费用就可以入党。用来规矩和管理混乱无序的运动的委员会的层次结构也被建立。国大党由一个精英组织转变成了一个大众化政党。
1922年，在Chauri Chaura，Uttar Pradesh暴发暴力事件后，甘地暂时取消了他的不服从运动。 他转向社会活动。 在Ajmedabad建立了Sabarmati Ashram（高僧修行所），还有报纸“年轻的印度”（Young India）。他为历史上被践踏的种姓争取平等的权利，尤其是为贱民（他称之为“神的孩子”）争取权利。
甘地再次参加独立运动是在1930年。国大党当时拜访他，希望他领导另一场大规模的公民不服从运动。他于是在1930年3月21日到4月6日领导了他一生中最著名的一次运动─为了抗议殖民政府的食盐公卖制，甘地从德里到Ahmedabad游行达400公里， 被称之为德里游行(或称“盐队”)。 数以千计的人们徒步到海边自己取盐而不是给政府交税。
他1915年回印度，并很快地成为正在从事独立运动的国大党的领袖。通过联合抵制英货，甘地促进了印度农村工业的发展，同时，通过宣传非暴力抵抗，来抑制恐怖活动的暴虐，虽然他不能阻止这些恐怖活动。
虽然他经常攻击英国政府，但是他一直声明他尊重英国人。因此大多英国人也佩服他，虽然他们并不明白甘地做事的内因。
甘地开始穿了一道缠腰布在印度乡下四处演讲，鼓励使用手纺车来解除印度对兰开夏（Lancashire）纺织厂的依赖。
1933年5月8日，甘地开始了为期21天的绝食抗议英国政府对印度的压迫。1934年夏天，他又进行了他一生中三次不成功的绝食。1939年3月3日他又在孟买绝食抗议印度的独裁统治。
甘地选择在国大党内的继任者是尼赫鲁，就是后来的总理。尼赫鲁和他的政治对手Sardar Patel对于独立的印度该走那条路公开承认有不同意见。但是甘地更相信尼赫鲁能建立保障印度人民自由的政府。
他曾先后在1922年，1930年，1933年和1942年四次入狱，在狱中通过绝食展开他的文明不服从运动。1931年赴伦敦参加了有关印度将来的一次圆桌会议，但并没有结果。到1942年，他相信独立是印度唯一可能的出路。他与英国驻印度最后两任总督（阿奇博尔德·珀西瓦尔·韦维尔和路易斯·蒙巴顿）合作制定了印度独立和分治方案，于1947年8月15日公布。此时，甘地的许多追随者开始尊称他为“圣雄”。
[编辑] 二战时期
1939年当纳粹德国入侵波兰时二战爆发了。虽然甘地对法西斯侵略的受害者深表同情，经与共和国大党的同志们深思熟虑后，宣布印度不会支持表面上是为自由而战的战争，尽管印度当时也还没有自由。他声称如果战后印度可以独立的话，他会与英国并肩战斗。英国政府的反应是完全负面的，而且他们还试图给印度的印度教徒和穆斯林之间制造裂痕。在二战时甘地的独立要求变得更加得到拥护。他起草了一个让英国从印度退出的草案。这个草案立刻引发了印度有史以来的最大的一次独立运动。 这个运动导致了很多人被捕和史无前例规模的暴力。 甘地和他的支持者们清楚地说如果印度不能独立，就不支持战争。这时，他甚至暗示他曾经想结束他对非暴力不可动摇的支持。他说：“他身边这个有序的无政府比真正的无政府还差”。于是他于1942年8月9日在孟买被英国军队逮捕，关了两年。
甘地认为成立自治政府的进度缓慢，于是加强了对英国政权的反抗。他经常被抓入监狱。1942年第二次世界大战期间，他宣称反法西斯同盟只能得到独立的印度的支持。这是他最后一次入狱。
[编辑] 印巴分治与暗杀
甘地对印度的印度教徒和穆斯林都有重要的影响。据说一次他一出现就使得双方的冲突平息。他强烈反对任何把印度分成两个国家的提议。
他主张印度教徒和穆斯林团结合作，提倡社会改良、自我道德完善和精神感化。二战之后, 甘地希望印度能够独立并成为一个完整的国家，但最后，为了印度独立，甘地接受让印度与巴基斯坦分别独立的方案，巴基斯坦成为一个独立的穆斯林国家。 在政权交接的那天，甘地没有庆祝印度的独立，而是独自在加尔各答为分治而忧伤。
一些人不满他接受印巴分治法案，拒绝他的非暴力哲学。当印度人和穆斯林人又开始暴乱冲突，甘地开始了他的第十四次绝食，告示大家直到停战之后他才会进食。他成功使局势一度稳定。但在1948年1月30日，刚结束绝食的甘地在前往一个祈祷会的途中被一个印度教狂热分子南度蓝姆·高德西枪杀。在后来的审判中，南度蓝姆·高德西自称：“在我开枪前，我真心祝福他（甘地）并当面恭敬地向他鞠躬。”
[编辑] 个人生活信条
甘地奉行的苦行僧式的个人克己生活制度包括素食，独身，默想，禁欲，一周有一天不说话，放弃西方式衣服而穿了印度土布做的印度传统服装，用纺车纺纱，参与劳动。
甘地的哲学和非暴力不合作（satya, ahimsa）的思想深受薄伽梵歌，印度教信仰以及耆那教的影响。非暴力（ahimsa)的概念在印度的宗教中长久以来就有。印度教，佛教，耆那教中对于此都有重述。甘地在他的自传“我的对于真理的实践经历”（The Story of my Experiments with Truth）揭示了他的哲学和生活方式。
尽管他去伦敦时，尝试吃肉，但是他后来变成一个严格的素食主义者。他在伦敦求学时对此写过几本书。在印度教和耆那教中素食主义是根深蒂固的。他的家乡就有很多印度教徒是素食主义者。他尝试不同的饮食，最终相信素食足以满足人体的最小要求。他也曾很长时间不进食，并以此作为政治武器。
在他三十六岁时，他禁欲，变成了一个彻底的禁欲主义者。禁欲是受印度教的影响。但是他没有离婚。据说他的这个决定没有同他的妻子讨论，而是直接向她宣布的。
甘地每周一天不说话。他相信沉默带给他内心的平静。这来自于印度教中的力量来自于“沉默”（mouna）和“平静”（“shanti”，梵语音译。）。他在沉默靠在纸上写字来交流。从他三十七岁开始的三年半里，甘地拒绝读报纸。他认为尘世的喧嚣比他的内心的不安更加不堪。
在从南非的成功法律工作回到印度后，他放弃了代表富有和成功的西方式衣服。他的意思是要穿的能够被印度最贫穷的人接受。他宣扬使用家庭纺织的土布（khadi）。甘地和他的跟从者使用纺车自己纺的布做衣服。这对英国的权力集团是一个威胁。如果印度人因为没有工作而空闲时，他们从英国那里买衣服。如果印度人自己做衣服，英国的工业就空闲了。后来国大党的党旗中就有纺车图案。
[编辑] 荣誉头衔
他的头衔“Mahatma”，（一般汉译为“圣雄”）来源于梵语的敬语mahatman, 原意“Great Souled”，伟大的灵魂， 却常被误以为是他的名字。这在他授予泰戈尔"Gurudev"的称号，意即“伟大的导师”后，1915年印度诗人拉宾德拉那·泰戈尔（Rabindranath Tagore）赠予他的尊称，意为合圣人与英雄于一身。
这个头衔的使用在印度以外也被广泛地接受, 可能部分的反映出在他的时代印度和英国的复杂关系。 无论如何，这个头衔的广泛使用是同世界上对甘地这样一个对于非暴力和自己的宗教信仰的极其执著的人的广泛接受相一致的。
[编辑] 艺术作品中的甘地
关于甘地最出名的艺术作品应该是电影《甘地》。该片的导演是理查德·阿滕伯勒（Richard Attenborough）。主演是本·金斯利（Ben Kingsley），他的一半血统也是来自古吉拉特邦。电影“The Making of the Mahatma”展示的是他在南非的二十一年。主演是Rajat Kapur。
在英国，有几座甘地的塑像，最著名的是在他学习法律的伦敦大学学院的附近的Tavistock Gardens。
在美国，旧金山的Ferry楼旁，休斯敦的Herman公园，纽约的Union Square，亚特兰大的马丁·路德·金纪念处，华盛顿特区Dupont Circle的印度使馆附近，都可以看到甘地的塑像。
在巴黎，阿姆斯特丹，巴塞罗那 和里斯本，也有甘地的雕塑。印度政府赠给加拿大的温尼伯市一座雕塑，表达他们对将来安家与此的加拿大人权博物馆的支持。[2]
[编辑] 其他
尽管甘地在1937年到1948年之间获得过五次提名，但他始终没有获得过诺贝尔和平奖。多年以后，诺贝尔委员会对此公开表达过他们的遗憾。1948年甘地去世那年，诺贝尔和平奖并未颁发，原因是没有适合的、活着的候选人；在1989年当达赖喇嘛获得诺贝尔和平奖时，委员会主席说“此奖之一部分纪念莫罕达斯·甘地”（in part a tribute to the memory of Mahatma Gandhi）。诺贝尔电子博物馆有一篇文章讨论此事，详见——Mahatma Gandhi, the Missing Laureate
甘地死后，他的事迹，一直受到广泛的评论。例如，作为大英帝国的例子，丘吉尔一次说：“见到甘地先生，……是令人作呕，他曾是一个妨害治安的Middle Temple出来的律师。现在在东方作出苦行僧的样子，半裸的在总督府前游行，却出名了”。与此相反，爱因斯坦这样评论甘地：“后世的子孙也许很难相信，历史上竟走过这样一副血肉之躯。”（Generations to come will scarcely believe that such a one as this walked the earth in flesh and blood.）他又说：“我认为甘地的观点是我们这个时期所有政治家中最高明的。我们应该朝着他的精神方向努力：不是通过暴力达到我们的目的，而是不同你认为邪恶的势力结盟。”1999年《时代》杂志将其评选为20世纪风云人物第一名是爱因斯坦，第二位世纪风云人物是罗斯福总统，印度的甘地列第三位，他是以个人之力抗拒专制、拯救民权和个人自由的象征。
甘地的贡献不会被人们遗忘。他的孙子，Arun Gandhi和Rajmohan Gandhi，甚至他的重孙，Tushar Gandhi也是社会政治活动家，为了世界上的非暴力而努力。
甘地与印度的政治家族甘地家族无关。在英迪拉·甘地（Indira Gandhi）和Feroze Gandhi结婚后，这个政治家族才采用甘地这个姓氏。
[编辑] 参见
* 巴韦
* 世界的七大错
甘地纪念碑，美国纽约中央公园
甘地纪念碑，美国纽约中央公园
[编辑] 参考资料
* Bondurant, Joan V.（1988）．Conquest of Violence: The Gandhian Philosophy of Conflict．Princeton UP．ISBN 0-691-02281-X．
* Chernus, Ira. American Nonviolence: The History of an Idea, chapter 7. ISBN 1-57075-547-7
* Chadha, Yogesh. Gandhi: A Life. ISBN 0-471-35062-1
* Dutta, Krishna and Andrew Robinson．Rabindranath Tagore: An Anthology，1997，London：Picador/Macmillan．ISBN 0-330-34962-7．
* Fischer, Louis. The Essential Gandhi: An Anthology of His Writings on His Life, Work, and Ideas. ISBN 1-4000-3050-1
* Gandhi, M.K. "Zionism and Antisemitism." The Gandhi Reader: A Sourcebook of His Life and Writings. Homer Jack (ed.) Grove Press, New York: 1956:317-322.
* ---"Questions on the Jews." The Gandhi Reader: A Sourcebook of His Life and Writings. Homer Jack (ed.) Grove Press, New York: 1956:322-3.
* --- "Reply to Jewish Friends." The Gandhi Reader: A Sourcebook of His Life and Writings. Homer Jack (ed.) Grove Press, New York: 1956:323-4.
* --- "Jews and Palestine." The Gandhi Reader: A Sourcebook of His Life and Writings. Homer Jack (ed.) Grove Press, New York: 1956:324-6.
* Gandhi, M.K. An Autobiography: The Story of My Experiments With Truth (available at wikisource) [3] (1929) ISBN 0-8070-5909-9
* Gandhi, Rajmohan（1990）．Patel: A Life．Navajivan Publishing House．ISBN 81-7229-138-8．
* Rune, Peter. Gandhi: A Photo biography. ISBN 0-7148-9279-3
* Sharp, Gene. Gandhi as a Political Strategist, with Essays on Ethics and Politics. Boston: Extending Horizon Books, 1979.
* Sofri, Gianni. Gandhi and India: A Century in Focus. (1995) ISBN 1-900624-12-5
[编辑] 外部链接
维基语录上的相关摘录：
圣雄甘地
* http://www.gandhiserve.org
* http://www.gandhiservefoundation.org
* http://www.gandhi.biz
* 甘地：论非暴力
* 《圣雄甘地——谈甘地的人权、非暴力精神》池田大作著
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Pregnancy
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
This article is about pregnancy in female humans. For pregnancy in other animals, see Gestation. For pregnancy in males, see Male pregnancy.
A pregnant woman near the end of her term
A pregnant woman near the end of her term
Pregnancy (latin graviditas) is the carrying of one or more offspring, known as a fetus or embryo, inside the uterus of a female human. In a pregnancy, there can be multiple gestations, as in the case of twins or triplets. Human pregnancy is the most studied of all mammalian pregnancies. Obstetrics is the medical field that studies and treats pregnant patients.
Childbirth usually occurs about 38 weeks from fertilization, i.e., approximately 40 weeks from the start of the last menstruation in humans. Thus, pregnancy lasts about nine months, although the exact definition of the English word “pregnancy” is a subject of controversy.
Contents
[hide]
* 1 Terminology
* 2 Characteristics
o 2.1 Duration
* 3 Diagnosis
* 4 Physiology
o 4.1 First trimester
o 4.2 Second trimester
o 4.3 Third trimester
o 4.4 Prenatal development and sonograph images
* 5 Physiological changes in pregnancy
o 5.1 Hormonal changes
o 5.2 Physical changes
o 5.3 Cardiovascular changes
o 5.4 Respiratory changes
o 5.5 Metabolic changes
o 5.6 Renal changes
* 6 Management
o 6.1 Nutrition
o 6.2 Weight gain
o 6.3 Immunological tolerance
o 6.4 Sexuality during pregnancy
o 6.5 Abortion
* 7 Progression
o 7.1 Complaints
o 7.2 Childbirth
o 7.3 Postnatal period
* 8 Context
* 9 See also
* 10 References
[edit] Terminology
One scientific term for the state of pregnancy is gravid, and a pregnant female is sometimes referred to as a gravida.[1] Both words are rarely used in common speech. Similarly, the term "parity" (abbreviated as "para") is used for the number of previous successful live births. Medically, a woman who has is not currently pregnant or who has never been pregnant is referred to as a "nulligravida", and in subsequent pregnancies as "multigravida" or "multiparous".[2] Hence during a second pregnancy a woman would be described as "gravida 2, para 1" and upon delivery as "gravida 2, para 2". Incomplete pregnancies of abortions, miscarriages or stillbirths account for parity values being less than the gravida number, whereas a multiple birth will increase the parity value. Women who have never carried a pregnancy achieving more than 20 weeks of gestation age are referred to as "nulliparous".[3]
The term embryo is used to describe the developing offspring during the first eight weeks following conception, and the term foetus is used from about two months of development until birth.[4][5]
In many societies' medical and legal definitions, human pregnancy is somewhat arbitrarily divided into three trimester periods, as a means to simplify reference to the different stages of prenatal development. The first trimester carries the highest risk of miscarriage (natural death of embryo or foetus). During the second trimester, the development of the foetus can be more easily monitored and diagnosed. The beginning of the third trimester often approximates the point of viability, or the ability of the foetus to survive, with or without medical help, outside of the uterus.[6]
[edit] Characteristics
Pregnancy occurs as the result of the female gamete or oocyte (egg) being penetrated by the male gamete spermatozoon in a process referred to, in medicine, as "fertilization", or more commonly known as "conception". The fusion of male and female gametes usually occurs through the act of sexual intercourse. However, the advent of artificial insemination has also made achieving pregnancy possible in such cases where sexual intercourse is not potentially fertile (through choice or male/female infertility).
A number of medical signs are associated with pregnancy.[7][8] These signs typically appear, if at all, within the first few weeks after conception. Although not all of these signs are universally present, nor are all of them diagnostic by themselves, taken together they make a presumptive diagnosis of pregnancy. These signs include the presence of human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) in the blood and urine, missed menstrual period, implantation bleeding that occurs at implantation of the embryo in the uterus during the third or fourth week after last menstrual period, increased basal body temperature sustained for over two weeks after ovulation, Chadwick's sign (darkening of the cervix, vagina, and vulva), Goodell's sign (softening of the vaginal portion of the cervix), Hegar's sign (softening of the uterus isthmus), and pigmentation of linea alba - Linea nigra, (darkening of the skin in a midline of the abdomen, caused by hyperpigmentation resulting from hormonal changes; it usually appears around the middle of pregnancy).[7][8]
[edit] Duration
Though pregnancy begins at conception, it is more convenient to date from the first day of a woman's last menstrual period (acronym = LMP), or from the date of conception (if known). Starting from one of these dates, the expected date of delivery (acronym = EDD) can be calculated. Counting from the LMP, pregnancy usually lasts between 37 and 42 weeks, with the EDD at 40 weeks,[9] 38 weeks after conception. 40 weeks is a little more than nine months and six days, which forms the basis of Naegele's rule for estimating date of delivery.
Pregnancy is considered 'at term' when gestation attains 37 complete weeks but is less than 42 (between 259 and 294 days since LMP). Events before completion of 37 weeks (259 days) are considered pre-term; from week 42 (294 days) events are considered post-term.[10] When a pregnancy exceeds 42 weeks (294 days), the risk of complications for mother and fetus increases significantly.[9][11] As such, obstetricians usually prefer to induce labour, in an uncomplicated pregnancy, at some stage between 41 and 42 weeks.[12][13]
Recent medical literature prefers the terminology pre-term and post-term to premature and post-mature. Pre-term and post-term are unambiguously defined as above, whereas premature and postmature have historical meaning and relate more to the infant's size and state of development rather than to the stage of pregnancy.[14][15]
Though these are the averages, the actual length of pregnancy depends on various factors. For example, the first pregnancy tends to last longer than subsequent pregnancies. Fewer than 10% of births occur on the due date; 50% of births are within a week of the due date, and almost 90% within two weeks.[16]
Accurate dating of pregnancy is important, because it is used in calculating the results of various prenatal tests (for example, in the triple test). A decision may be made to induce labour if a fetus is perceived to be overdue. Due dates are only a rough estimate, and the process of accurately dating a pregnancy using the LMP method is complicated by the fact that not all women have 28 day menstrual cycles, nor ovulate on the 14th day following their last menstrual period.
[edit] Diagnosis
Main article: Obstetrics
The beginning of pregnancy may be detected in a number of ways, including various pregnancy tests which detect hormones generated by the newly-formed placenta. Clinical blood and urine tests can detect pregnancy soon after implantation, which is as early as 6-8 days after fertilization. Home pregnancy tests are personal urine tests, which normally cannot detect a pregnancy until at least 12-15 days after fertilization. Both clinical and home tests can only detect the state of pregnancy, and cannot detect its age.
In the post-implantation phase, the blastocyst secretes a hormone named human chorionic gonadotropin which in turn, stimulates the corpus luteum in the woman's ovary to continue producing progesterone. This acts to maintain the lining of the uterus so that the embryo will continue to be nourished. The glands in the lining of the uterus will swell in response to the blastocyst, and capillaries will be stimulated to grow in that region. This allows the blastocyst to receive vital nutrients from the woman.
An early sonograph can determine the age of the pregnancy fairly accurately. In practice, doctors typically express the age of a pregnancy (i.e. an "age" for an embryo) in terms of "menstrual date" based on the first day of a woman's last menstrual period, as the woman reports it. Unless a woman's recent sexual activity has been limited, or she has been charting her cycles, or the conception is as the result of some types of fertility treatment (such as IUI or IVF) the exact date of fertilization is unknown. Absent symptoms such as morning sickness, often the only visible sign of a pregnancy is an interruption of her normal monthly menstruation cycle, (i.e. a "late period"). Hence, the "menstrual date" is simply a common educated estimate for the age of a fetus, which is an average of two weeks later than the first day of the woman's last menstrual period. The term "conception date" may sometimes be used when that date is more certain, though even medical professionals can be imprecise with their use of the two distinct terms. The due date can be calculated by using Naegele's rule. The expected date of delivery may also be calculated from sonogram measurement of the fetus. This method is slightly more accurate than methods based on LMP.[17] The beginning of labour, which is variously called confinement or childbed, begins on the day predicted by LMP 3.6% of the time and on the day predicted by sonography 4.3% of the time.[18]
Diagnostic criteria are: Women who have menstrual cycles and are sexually active, a period delayed by a few days or weeks is suggestive of pregnancy; elevated B-hcG to around 100,000 mIU/mL by 10 weeks of gestation.
[edit] Physiology
The term trimester redirects here. For the term trimester used in academic settings, see Academic term
Pregnancy is typically broken into three periods, or trimesters, each of about three months. While there are no hard and fast rules, these distinctions are useful in describing the changes that take place over time.
[edit] First trimester
Comparison of growth of the abdomen between 26 weeks and 40 weeks gestation.
Comparison of growth of the abdomen between 26 weeks and 40 weeks gestation.
Traditionally, doctors have measured pregnancy from a number of convenient points, including the day of last menstruation, ovulation, fertilization, implantation and chemical detection. In medicine, pregnancy is often defined as beginning when the developing embryo becomes implanted into the endometrial lining of a woman's uterus. In some cases where complications may have arisen, the fertilized egg might implant itself in the fallopian tubes or the cervix, causing an ectopic pregnancy. Most pregnant women do not have any specific signs or symptoms of implantation, although it is not uncommon to experience light bleeding at implantation. Some women will also experience cramping during their first trimester. This is usually of no concern unless there is spotting or bleeding as well. The outer layers of the embryo grow and form a placenta, for the purpose of receiving essential nutrients through the uterine wall, or endometrium. The umbilical cord in a newborn child consists of the remnants of the connection to the placenta. The developing embryo undergoes tremendous growth and changes during the process of foetal development.
Morning sickness can occur in about seventy percent of all pregnant women and typically improves after the first trimester.[19] Most miscarriages occur during this period.
A pregnant woman at 26 weeks
A pregnant woman at 26 weeks
[edit] Second trimester
Months 4 through 6 of the pregnancy are called the second trimester. Most women feel more energized in this period, and begin to seriously put on weight as the symptoms of morning sickness subside and eventually fade away. Although the fetus begins moving and takes a recognizable human shape during the first trimester, it is not until the second trimester that movement of the fetus, often referred to as "quickening", can be felt. This typically happens by the fourth month. The placenta is now fully functioning and the fetus is making insulin and urinating. The teeth are now formed inside the fetus's gums and the reproductive organs can be recognized, and can distinguish the fetus as male or female.
[edit] Third trimester
Final weight gain takes place, and the fetus begins to move regularly. The woman's navel will sometimes become convex, "popping" out, due to her expanding abdomen. This period of her pregnancy can be uncomfortable, causing symptoms like weak bladder control and back-ache. Movement of the fetus becomes stronger and more frequent and via improved brain, eye, and muscle function the fetus is prepared for ex utero viability. The woman can feel the fetus "rolling" and it may cause pain or discomfort when it is near the woman's ribs and spine.
It is during this time that a baby born prematurely may survive. The use of modern medical intensive care technology has greatly increased the probability of premature babies surviving, and has pushed back the boundary of viability to much earlier dates than would be possible without assistance.[20] In spite of these developments, premature birth remains a major threat to the fetus, and may result in ill-health in later life, even if the baby survives.
[edit] Prenatal development and sonograph images
See also: Prenatal development
Prenatal development is divided into two primary biological stages. The first is the embryonic stage, which lasts for about two months. At this point, the fetal stage begins. At the beginning of the foetal stage, the risk of miscarriage decreases sharply,[21] all major structures including hands, feet, head, brain, and other organs are present, and they continue to grow and develop. When the fetal stage commences, a fetus is typically about 30 mm (1.2 inches) in length, and the heart can be seen beating via sonograph; the fetus bends the head, and also makes general movements and startles that involve the whole body.[22] Brain stem activity has been detected as early as 54 days after conception,[23] and the first measurable signs of EEG activity occur in the 12th week.[24] Some fingerprint formation occurs from the beginning of the fetal stage.[25]
Embryo at 6 weeks after fertilization[26]
Fetus at 8 weeks after fertilization[27]
Fetus at 18 weeks after fertilization[28]
Fetus at 38 weeks after fertilization[29]
Relative size in 1st Month (simplified illustration)
Relative size in 3rd Month (simplified illustration)
Relative size in 5th Month (simplified illustration)
Relative size in 9th Month (simplified illustration)
One way to observe prenatal development is via ultrasound images. Modern 3D ultrasound images provide greater detail for prenatal diagnosis than the older 2D ultrasound technology.[30] Whilst 3D is popular with parents desiring a prenatal photograph as a keepsake,[31] both 2D and 3D are discouraged by the FDA for non-medical use,[32] but there are no definitive studies linking ultrasound to any adverse medical effects.[33] The following 3D ultrasound images were taken at different stages of pregnancy:
3-inch fetus (about 14 weeks gestational age)
Fetus at 17 weeks
Fetus at 20 weeks
[edit] Physiological changes in pregnancy
The body must change its physiological and homeostatic mechanisms in pregnancy to ensure the fetus is provided for. Increases in blood sugar, breathing and cardiac output are all required.
[edit] Hormonal changes
Levels of progesterone and oestrogens rise continually throughout pregnancy, suppressing the hypothalamic axis and subsequently the menstrual cycle. The mother and the placenta also produces many hormones.
Prolactin levels increase due to maternal Pituitary gland enlargement by 50%. This mediates a change in the structure of the Mammary gland from ductal to lobular-alveolar. Parathyroid hormone is increased due to increases of calcium uptake in the gut and reabsorption by the kidney. Adrenal hormones such as cortisol and aldosterone also increase.
Placental lactogen is produced by the placenta and stimulates lipolysis and fatty acid metabolism by the mother, conserving blood glucose for use by the fetus. It also decreases maternal tissue sensitivity to insulin, resulting in gestational diabetes.
[edit] Physical changes
12-15kgs (26-33lbs) are gained during pregnancy due to fat deposition, growth of the reproductive organs and fetal tissues.
[edit] Cardiovascular changes
Blood volume increases by 40% in the first two trimesters. This is due to an increase in plasma volume through increased aldosterone. Progesterone may also interact with the aldosterone receptor, thus leading to increased levels. Red blood cell numbers increase due to increased erythropoietin levels.
Cardiac function is also modified, with increase heart rate and increased stroke volume. A decrease in vagal tone and increase in sympathetic tone is the cause. Blood volume increases act to increase stroke volume of the heart via Starling's law. After pregnancy the change in stroke volume is not reversed. Cardiac output rises from 4 to 7 litres in the 2nd trimester
Blood pressure also fluctuates. In the first trimester it falls. Initially this is due to decreased sensitivity to angiotensin and vasodilation provoked by increased blood volume. Later however, it is caused by decreased resistance to the growing uteroplacental bed.
[edit] Respiratory changes
Decreased functional residual capacity is seen, typically falling from 1.7 to 1.35 litres, due to the compression of the diaphragm by the uterus. Tidal volume increases, from 0.45 to 0.65 litres, giving an increase in pulmonary ventilation. This is necessary to meet the increased oxygen requirement of the body, which reaches 50ml/min - 20ml of which goes to reproductive tissues.
Progesterone may act centrally on chemoreceptors to reset the set point to a lower partial pressure of carbon dioxide. This maintains an increased respiration rate even at a decreased level of carbon dioxide.
[edit] Metabolic changes
An increased requirement for nutrients is given by fetal growth and fat deposition. Changes are caused by steroid hormones, lactogen and cortisol.
Maternal insulin resistance can lead to gestational diabetes. Increase liver metabolism is also seen, with increased gluconeogenesis to increase maternal glucose levels.
[edit] Renal changes
Renal plasma flow increases, as does aldosterone and erthropoietin production as discussed. The tubular maximum for glucose is reduced, which may precipitate gestational diabetes.
[edit] Management
Prenatal medical care is of recognized value throughout the developed world. Periconceptional Folic acid supplementation is the only type of supplementation of proven efficacy.
[edit] Nutrition
Main article: Nutrition and pregnancy
A balanced, nutritious diet is an important aspect of a healthy pregnancy. If the woman is healthy, balancing carbohydrates, fat, and proteins, and eating a variety of fruits and vegetables usually ensure good nutrition. Those whose diets are affected by health issues, religious requirements, or ethical beliefs may choose to consult a health professional for specific advice.
Adequate periconceptional folic acid (also called folate or Vitamin B9) intake has been proven to limit fetal neural tube defects, preventing spina bifida, a very serious birth defect. The neural tube develops during the first 28 days of pregnancy and this explains the necessity to guarantee adequate periconceptional folate intake.[34][35] Folates (from folia, leaf) are abundant in spinach (fresh, frozen or canned), and are also found in green vegetables, salads, melon, hummus, and eggs. In the United States and Canada, most wheat products (flour, noodles) are fortified with folic acid.[36]
Several micronutrients are important for the health of the developing fetus, especially in areas of the world where insufficient nutrition is prevalent.[37] In developed areas, such as Western Europe and the United States, certain nutrients such as Vitamin D and calcium, required for bone development, may require supplementation.[38][39][40]
There is some evidence that long-chain omega-3 (n-3) fatty acids have an effect on the developing fetus, but further research is required.[41] At this time, supplementing the diet with foods rich in these fatty acids is not recommended, but is not harmful.[42]
Dangerous bacteria or parasites may contaminate foods, particularly listeria and toxoplasma, toxoplasmosis agent. Careful washing of fruits and raw vegetables may remove these pathogens, as may thoroughly cooking leftovers, meat, or processed meat. Soft cheeses may contain listeria, if milk is raw the risk may increase. Cat feces pose a particular risk of toxoplasmosis. Pregnant women are also more prone to catching salmonella infection from eggs and poultry, which should be thoroughly cooked. Practicing good hygiene in the kitchen can reduce these risks.[43]
[edit] Weight gain
Caloric intake must be increased, to ensure proper development of the fetus. The amount of weight gained during pregnancy varies between women. The National Health Service recommends that overall weight gain during the 9 month period for women who start pregnancy with normal weight be 10 to 12 kilograms (22–26 lb).[44] During pregnancy, insufficient weight gain can compromise the health of the fetus. Women with fears of weight gain or with eating disorders may choose to work with a health professional, to ensure that pregnancy does not trigger disordered eating. Likewise, excessive weight gain can pose risks to the woman and the fetus. Women who are prone to being overweight may choose to plan a healthy diet and exercise plan to help moderate the amount of weight gained.
[edit] Immunological tolerance
Main article: Pre-eclampsia
Research on the immunological basis for pre-eclampsia has indicated that continued exposure to a partner's semen has a strong protective effect against pre-eclampsia, largely due to the absorption of several immune modulating factors present in seminal fluid.[45] Studies also showed that long periods of sexual cohabitation with the same partner fathering a woman's child significantly decreased her chances of suffering pre-eclampsia.[46] Several other studies have since investigated the strongly decreased incidence of pre-eclampsia in women who had received blood transfusions from their partner, those with long, preceding histories of sex without barrier contraceptives, and in women who had been regularly performing oral sex,[47] with one study concluding that "induction of allogeneic tolerance to the paternal HLA molecules of the fetus may be crucial. Data collected strongly suggests that exposure, and especially oral exposure to soluble HLA from semen can lead to transplantation tolerance."[47]
Other studies have investigated the roles of semen in the female reproductive tracts of mice, showing that "insemination elicits inflammatory changes in female reproductive tissues,"[48] concluding that the changes "likely lead to immunological priming to paternal antigens or influence pregnancy outcomes." A similar series of studies confirmed the importance of immune modulation in female mice through the absorption of specific immune factors in semen, including TGF-Beta, lack of which is also being investigated as a cause of miscarriage in women and infertility in men.
According to the theory, pre-eclampsia is frequently caused by a failure of the mother's immune system to accept the fetus and placenta, which both contain "foreign" proteins from paternal genes. Regular exposure to the father's semen causes her immune system to develop tolerance to the paternal antigens, a process which is significantly supported by as many as 93 currently identified immune regulating factors in seminal fluid.[49][50] Having already noted the importance of a woman's immunological tolerance to her baby's paternal genes, several Dutch reproductive biologists decided to take their research a step further. Consistent with the fact that human immune systems tolerate things better when they enter the body via the mouth, the Dutch researchers conducted a series of studies that confirmed a surprisingly strong correlation between a diminished incidence of pre-eclampsia and a woman's practice of oral sex, and noted that the protective effects were strongest if she swallowed her partner's semen.[51] The researchers concluded that while any exposure to a partner's semen during sexual activity appears to decrease a woman's chances for the various immunological disorders that can occur during pregnancy, immunological tolerance could be most quickly established through oral introduction and gastrointestinal absorption of semen.[51] Recognizing that some of the studies potentially included the presence of confounding factors, such as the likelihood that women who regularly perform oral sex and swallow semen[citation needed] engage in more frequent vaginal intercourse, the researchers also noted that, either way, the data still overwhelmingly supports the main theory behind all their studies--that repeated exposure to semen establishes the maternal immunological tolerance necessary for a safe and successful pregnancy.[citation needed]
[edit] Sexuality during pregnancy
Most pregnant women can enjoy sexual intercourse throughout gravidity. Most research suggests that, during pregnancy, both sexual desire and frequency of sexual relations decrease.[52][53] In context of this overall decrease in desire, some studies indicate a second-trimester increase, preceding a decrease.[54] However, these decreases are not universal: a significant number of women report greater sexual satisfaction throughout their pregnancies.[55]
Sex during pregnancy is a low-risk behaviour except when the physician advises that sexual intercourse be avoided, which may, in some pregnancies, lead to serious pregnancy complications or health issues such as a high-risk for premature labour or a ruptured uterus. Such a decision may be based upon a history of difficulties in a previous childbirth.
Some psychological research studies in the 1980s and '90s contend that it is useful for pregnant women to continue to have sexual activity, specifically noting that overall sexual satisfaction was correlated with feeling happy about being pregnant, feeling more attractive in late pregnancy than before pregnancy and experiencing orgasm.[54] Sexual activity has also been suggested as a way to prepare for induced labour; some believe the natural prostaglandin content of seminal liquid can favour the maturation process of the cervix making it more flexible, allowing for easier and faster dilation and effacement of the cervix. However, the efficacy of using sexual intercourse as an induction agent "remains uncertain".[56]
During pregnancy, the baby is protected from penetrative thrusting by the amniotic fluid in the womb and by the woman's abdomen.[57]
[edit] Abortion
Main article: Abortion
An abortion is the removal or expulsion of an embryo or fetus from the uterus, resulting in or caused by its death. This can occur spontaneously or accidentally as with a miscarriage, or be artificially induced by medical, surgical or other means.
[edit] Progression
[edit] Complaints
See also: Complications of pregnancy
The following are complaints that may occur during pregnancy:
* Back pain. A particularly common complaint in the third trimester when the patient's center of gravity has shifted.
* Constipation. A complaint that is caused by decreased bowel motility secondary to elevated progesterone (normal in pregnancy), which can lead to greater absorption of water.
* Braxton Hicks contractions. Occasional, irregular, and often painless contractions that occur several times per day.
* Edema. Common complaint in advancing pregnancy. Caused by compression of the inferior vena cava (IVC) and pelvic veins by the uterus leads to increased hydrostatic pressure in lower extremities.
* Regurgitation, heartburn and nausea. Common complaints that may be caused by Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease (GERD); this is determined by relaxation of the lower esophageal sphincter (LES) and increased transit time in the stomach (normal in pregnancy)
* Haemorrhoids. Complaint that is often noted in advancing pregnancy. Caused by increased venous stasis and IVC compression leading to congestion in venous system along with increased abdominal pressure secondary to the pregnant space-occupying uterus and constipation.
* Pelvic girdle pain. A common complaint is pain, instability or dysfunction of the symphysis pubis and/or sacroiliac joints resulting from either excess strain or injury (such as Diastasis symphysis pubis) during the course of the pregnancy or birthing process.
* Increased urinary frequency. A common complaint referred by the gravida that is caused by increased intravascular volume, elevated GFR (glomerular filtration rate), and compression of the bladder by the expanding uterus.
* Varicose veins. Common complaint caused by relaxation of the venous smooth muscle and increased intravascular pressure.
[edit] Childbirth
Main article: Childbirth
Childbirth is the process whereby an infant is born. It is considered by many to be the beginning of a person's life, and age is defined relative to this event in most cultures.
A woman is considered to be in labour when she begins experiencing regular uterine contractions, accompanied by changes of her cervix — primarily effacement and dilation. While childbirth is widely experienced as painful, some women do report painless labours, while others find that concentrating on the birth helps to quicken labour and lessen the sensations. Most births are successful vaginal births, but sometimes complications arise and a woman may undergo a caesarean section.
During the time immediately after birth, both the mother and the baby are hormonally cued to bond, the mother through the release of oxytocin, a hormone also released during breastfeeding.
[edit] Postnatal period
Main article: Postnatal
[edit] Context
There are fine distinctions between the concepts of fertilization and the actual state of pregnancy, which starts with implantation. In a normal pregnancy, the fertilization of the egg usually will have occurred in the Fallopian tubes or in the uterus. (Often, an egg may become fertilized yet fail to become implanted in the uterus.) If the pregnancy is the result of in-vitro fertilization, the fertilization will have occurred in a Petri dish, after which pregnancy begins when one or more zygotes implant after being transferred by a physician into the woman's uterus.
In the context of political debates regarding a proper definition of life, the terminology of pregnancy can be confusing. The medically and politically neutral term which remains is simply "pregnancy," though this can be problematic as it only refers indirectly to the embryo or fetus. De Crespigny observes that doctors' language has a powerful influence over the way patients think, and thus proposes that the best interests of patients are served by using language that both supports patient autonomy and is neutral.[58]
[edit] See also
* Abortion
* Anticoagulation in pregnancy
* Birth control
* Egg donation
* Fertility
* Fetal alcohol syndrome
* Maternal health
* Nesting instinct
* Parent
* Postnatal depression
* Pregnancy discrimination
* Pregnancy fetishism
* Pregnancy over age 50
* Pregnant patients' rights
* Prenatal care
* Simulated pregnancy
* Teenage pregnancy
[edit] References
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2. ^ "Definition of gravida". The Free Dictionary. Farlex, Inc. Retrieved on 2008-01-17.
3. ^ "Nulliparous Definition". MedicineNet.com. MedicineNet, Inc. Retrieved on 2008-01-17.
4. ^ "Embryo Definition". MedicineNet.com. MedicineNet, Inc. Retrieved on 2008-01-17.
5. ^ "Fetus Definition". MedicineNet.com. MedicineNet, Inc. Retrieved on 2008-01-17.
6. ^ "Trimester Definition". MedicineNet.com. MedicineNet, Inc. Retrieved on 2008-01-17.
7. ^ a b "Early symptoms of pregnancy: What happens right away". Mayo Clinic (February 22, 2007). Retrieved on 2007-08-22.
8. ^ a b "Pregnancy Symptoms - Early Signs of Pregnancy : American Pregnancy Association". Retrieved on 2008-01-16.
9. ^ a b Norwitz, MD, PhD, Errol R (September 2007). "Patient information: Postterm pregnancy". UpToDate. UpToDate, inc.. Retrieved on 2008-01-16.
10. ^ "Definitions". Saskatchewan Prevention Institute.. Retrieved on 2008-01-16.
11. ^ The American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists (April 2006). "What To Expect After Your Due Date". Medem. Medem, Inc.. Retrieved on 2008-01-16.
12. ^ Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists (2001). "Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists Induction of labour Evidence based Guideline". Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists. Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists. Retrieved on 2008-01-18.
13. ^ Stovall, M.D., Thomas G. (2004-03-23). "Postdate Pregnancy". Durham Obstetrics and Gynecology. Durham Obstetrics and Gynecology. Retrieved on 2008-01-18.
14. ^ "Definition of Premature birth". Medicine.net. Retrieved on 2008-01-16.
15. ^ Lama Rimawi, MD (2006-09-22). "Premature Infant". Disease & Conditions Encyclopedia. Discovery Communications, LLC.. Retrieved on 2008-01-16.
16. ^ Dr Sally Tracy, Having a Great Birth in Australia ed. David Vernon, Australian College of Midwives, 2005, p22
17. ^ Nguyen, T.H.; et al. (1999). "Evaluation of ultrasound-estimated date of delivery in 17 450 spontaneous singleton births: do we need to modify Naegele's rule?" (abstract). Ultrasound in Obstetrics and Gynecology 14 (1): 23–28. doi:10.1046/j.1469-0705.1999.14010023.x. Retrieved on 2007-08-18.
18. ^ Odutayo, Rotimi; Odunsi, Kunle (n.d.). "Post Term Pregnancy". Retrieved on 2007-08-18.
19. ^ Early pregnancy: Morning sickness, fatigue and other common symptoms
20. ^ Iams JD; Romero R, Culhane JF, Goldenberg RL (Jan 2008). "Primary, secondary, and tertiary interventions to reduce the morbidity and mortality of preterm birth". Lancet 371 (9607): 164–75. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(08)60108-7. PMID 18191687.
21. ^ • Q&A: Miscarriage. (August 6 , 2002). BBC News. Retrieved 2007-04-22: “The risk of miscarriage lessens as the pregnancy progresses. It decreases dramatically after the 8th week.”
• Lennart Nilsson, A Child is Born 91 (1990): at eight weeks, "the danger of a miscarriage … diminishes sharply."
• “Women’s Health Information”, Hearthstone Communications Limited: “The risk of miscarriage decreases dramatically after the 8th week as the weeks go by.” Retrieved 2007-04-22.
22. ^ Prechtl, Heinz. "Prenatal and Early Postnatal Development of Human Motor Behavior" in Handbook of brain and behaviour in human development, Kalverboer and Gramsbergen eds., pp. 415-418 (2001 Kluwer Academic Publishers). Retrieved 2007-03-04.
23. ^ Singer, Peter. Rethinking life & death: the collapse of our traditional ethics, page 104 (St. Martins Press 1996). Retrieved 2007-03-04.
24. ^ Vogel, Friedrich. Genetics and the Electroencephalogram (Springer 2000): "Slow EEG activity (0.5 – 2 c/s) can be demonstrated in the fetus even at the conceptual age of three months." Retrieved 2007-07-24.
25. ^ Zabinski, Mark. Forensic Series Seminar, Pastore Chemical Laboratory, University of Rhode Island (February 2003) (news report retrieved 2007-01-20).
26. ^ 3D Pregnancy (Image from gestational age of 6 weeks). Retrieved 2007-08-28. A rotatable 3D version of this photo is available here, and a sketch is available here.
27. ^ 3D Pregnancy (Image from gestational age of 10 weeks). Retrieved 2007-08-28. A rotatable 3D version of this photo is available here, and a sketch is available here.
28. ^ 3D Pregnancy (Image from gestational age of 20 weeks). Retrieved 2007-08-28. A rotatable 3D version of this photo is available here, and a sketch is available here.
29. ^ 3D Pregnancy (Image from gestational age of 40 weeks). Retrieved 2007-08-28. A rotatable 3D version of this photo is available here, and a sketch is available here.
30. ^ Dimitrova V, Markov D, Dimitrov R (2007). "[3D and 4D ultrasonography in obstetrics]" (in Bulgarian). Akush Ginekol (Sofiia) 46 (2): 31–40. PMID 17469450.
31. ^ Sheiner E, Hackmon R, Shoham-Vardi I, et al (2007). "A comparison between acoustic output indices in 2D and 3D/4D ultrasound in obstetrics". Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol 29 (3): 326–8. doi:10.1002/uog.3933. PMID 17265534.
32. ^ Rados C (January-February 2004). "FDA Cautions Against Ultrasound 'Keepsake' Images". FDA Consumer Magazine.
33. ^ Kempley R (2003-08-09). "The Grin Before They Bear It; Peek-a-Boo: Prenatal Portraits for the Ultrasound Set", Washington Post.
34. ^ Klusmann A, Heinrich B, Stöpler H, Gärtner J, Mayatepek E, Von Kries R (2005). "A decreasing rate of neural tube defects following the recommendations for periconceptional folic acid supplementation". Acta Paediatr. 94 (11): 1538–42. doi:10.1080/08035250500340396. PMID 16303691. Retrieved on 2008-01-20.
35. ^ Stevenson RE, Allen WP, Pai GS, Best R, Seaver LH, Dean J, Thompson S (2000). "Decline in prevalence of neural tube defects in a high-risk region of the United States". Pediatrics 106 (4): 677–83. doi:10.1542/peds.106.4.677. PMID 11015508.
36. ^ "Use of supplements containing folic acid among women of childbearing age--United States, 2007" (2008). MMWR Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep. 57 (1): 5–8. PMID 18185493.
37. ^ Haider BA, Bhutta ZA (2006). "Multiple-micronutrient supplementation for women during pregnancy". Cochrane Database Syst Rev (4): CD004905. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD004905.pub2. PMID 17054223.
38. ^ Theobald HE (2007). "Eating for pregnancy and breast-feeding". J Fam Health Care 17 (2): 45–9. PMID 17476978.
39. ^ Basile LA, Taylor SN, Wagner CL, Quinones L, Hollis BW (2007). "Neonatal vitamin D status at birth at latitude 32 degrees 72': evidence of deficiency". J Perinatol 27 (9): 568–71. doi:10.1038/sj.jp.7211796. PMID 17625571.
40. ^ Kuoppala T, Tuimala R, Parviainen M, Koskinen T, Ala-Houhala M (1986). "Serum levels of vitamin D metabolites, calcium, phosphorus, magnesium and alkaline phosphatase in Finnish women throughout pregnancy and in cord serum at delivery". Hum Nutr Clin Nutr 40 (4): 287–93. PMID 3488981.
41. ^ Hösli I, Zanetti-Daellenbach R, Holzgreve W, Lapaire O (2007). "Role of omega 3-fatty acids and multivitamins in gestation" (abstract). J Perinat Med 35 Suppl 1: S19–24. doi:10.1515/JPM.2007.032. PMID 17302536. Retrieved on 2008-01-20.
42. ^ Dubnov-Raz G, Finkelstein Y, Koren G (2007). "Omega-3 fatty acid supplementation during pregnancy: for mother, baby, or neither?". Can Fam Physician 53 (5): 817–8. PMID 17872742. Retrieved on 2008-01-20.
43. ^ Tarlow MJ (Aug 1994). "Epidemiology of neonatal infections". J Antimicrob Chemother 34 (Suppl A): 43–52. doi:10.1093/jac/34.1.43. PMID 7844073.
44. ^ How much weight will I put on during my pregnancy?
45. ^ Sarah Robertson. "Research Goals".
46. ^ Einarsson, Jon I. MD; Sangi-Haghpeykar, Haleh PhD; Gardner, Michael O. MD, MPH (2003). "Sperm exposure and development of preeclampsia". Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology 188 (5): 1241–1243. doi:10.1067/mob.2003.401.
47. ^ a b Koelman CA, Coumans AB, Nijman HW, Doxiadis II, Dekker GA, Claas FH (2000). "Correlation between oral sex and a low incidence of preeclampsia: a role for soluble HLA in seminal fluid?". J. Reprod. Immunol. 46 (2): 155–66. doi:10.1016/S0165-0378(99)00062-5. PMID 10706945.
48. ^ Martina Johansson, John J Bromfield, Melinda J Jasper, and Sarah A Robertson (2004). "Semen activates the female immune response during early pregnancy in mice". Journal of Immunology 112 (2): 290–300. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2567.2004.01876.x.
49. ^ Burne, Jerome (2006-01-30). "Give Sperm a Fighting Chance", The Times. Retrieved on 2007-11-16.
50. ^ "Sex Primes Women for Sperm", BBC News (2002-02-06). Retrieved on 2007-11-19.
51. ^ a b Fox, Douglas (2002-02-09). "Gentle Persuasion", The New Scientist. Retrieved on 2007-06-17.
52. ^ M.P. Bermudez; A.I. Sanchez, G. Buela-Casal (2001). "Influence of the Gestation Period on Sexual Desire". Psychology in Spain 5 (1): 14–16.
53. ^ Wing Yee Fok; Louis Yik-Si Chan, Pong Mo Yuen (10 2005). "Sexual behavior and activity in Chinese pregnant women". Acta Obstetricia et Gynecologica Scandinavica 84 (10): 934–938. doi:10.1111/j.0001-6349.2005.00743.x. PMID 16167907.
54. ^ a b Reamy K; White SE, Daniell WC, Le Vine ES (June 1982). "Sexuality and pregnancy. A prospective study". J Reprod Med. 27 (6): 321–7. PMID 7120209.
55. ^ Khamis MA; Mustafa MF, Mohamed SN, Toson MM (2007). "Influence of gestational period on sexual behavior". J Egypt Public Health Assoc. 2007 82 (1-2): 65–90. PMID 18217325.
56. ^ Methods for Cervical Ripening and Induction of Labor - May 15, 2003 - American Family Physician
57. ^ The Joy of Sex During Pregnancy - March of Dimes
58. ^ de Crespigny L. (Mar 2003). "Words matter: nomenclature and communication in perinatal medicine". Clin Perinatol 30 (1): 17–25. doi:10.1016/S0095-5108(02)00088-X. PMID 12696783.
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Sexuality
Human sexual behavior – Sexual intercourse – Erection – Ejaculation – Orgasm – Insemination – Fertilisation/Fertility – Masturbation – Pregnancy – Postpartum period
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Circumcision
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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The neutrality of this article's title and/or subject matter is disputed.
This is a dispute over the neutrality of viewpoints implied by the title, or the subject matter within its scope, rather than the actual facts stated. Please see the relevant discussion on the talk page.(June 2008)
This article is about male circumcision. For female circumcision, see Female genital cutting. For Judaism's circumcision ritual, see Brit milah.
Male circumcision is the removal of some or all of the foreskin (prepuce) from the penis.[1] The word "circumcision" comes from Latin circum (meaning "around") and cædere (meaning "to cut").
Early depictions of circumcision are found in cave drawings and Ancient Egyptian tombs, though some pictures may be open to interpretation.[2][3][4] Male circumcision is a commandment from God in Judaism.[5] In Islam, though not discussed in the Koran, circumcision is widely practiced and most often considered to be a sunnah.[6] It is also customary in some Christian churches in Africa, including some Oriental Orthodox Churches.[7] According to the World Health Organization (WHO), global estimates suggest that 30% of males are circumcised, of whom two thirds are Muslim.[8] The prevalence of circumcision varies widely between different populations. For example, prevalence is reported to be nearly universal in the Middle East,[9] but under 2% in Scandinavia.[10]
There is scientific evidence supporting both sides of the circumcision controversy. Routine neonatal circumcision advocates claim circumcision provides important health advantages which outweigh the risks, has no substantial effects on sexual function, has a complication rate of less than 0.5% when carried out by an experienced physician, and is best performed during the neonatal period. [11] Opponents of routine neonatal circumcision claim circumcision violates the individual's bodily rights, is medically unnecessary, adversely affects sexual pleasure and performance, and is a practice defended through the use of myths.[12]
In 1999, the American Medical Association stated that virtually all medical organizations and specialty societies do not recommend routine neotantal circumcision,[13] while in 2006 the World Health Organization and UNAIDS recommended promotion of neonatal circumcision to combat the transmission of HIV when done in a safe, culturally acceptable and sustainable manner.[14]
Contents
[hide]
* 1 Circumcision procedures
* 2 Cultures and religions
* 3 Ethical, psychological and legal considerations
o 3.1 Ethical issues
+ 3.1.1 Consent
o 3.2 Psychological and emotional consequences
o 3.3 Legality
* 4 Pain and pain relief during circumcision
* 5 Sexual effects
* 6 Medical aspects
o 6.1 Complications from circumcision
o 6.2 HIV and other sexually transmitted diseases
o 6.3 Hygiene, and infectious and chronic conditions
o 6.4 Penile cancer
* 7 Policies of various national medical associations
o 7.1 United States
o 7.2 Canada
o 7.3 United Kingdom
o 7.4 Australasia
* 8 History of circumcision
o 8.1 Medical circumcision in the 19th century and early 20th century
o 8.2 Circumcision since 1945
* 9 Prevalence of circumcision
* 10 See also
* 11 Further reading
* 12 Notes and references
* 13 External links
o 13.1 Circumcision opposition
o 13.2 Circumcision promotion
o 13.3 Circumcision techniques
[edit] Circumcision procedures
For infant circumcision, clamps, such as the Gomco clamp, Plastibell, and Mogen are often used.[15] Clamps cut the blood supply to the foreskin, limit any bleeding and protect the glans. Before using a clamp, the foreskin and the glans are separated with a blunt probe and/or curved hemostat.
* With the Plastibell, the adhesions between glans and foreskin are first cut with a probe. The foreskin is cut longitudinally, the Plastibell is placed over the glans and the foreskin is covered over the Plastibell. A ligature is then tied firmly around the foreskin. This crushes the skin against the groove in the Plastibell. The skin protruding beyond the ring is then cut away. The remaining foreskin and the clamp come off in three to seven days.[16]
* With a Gomco clamp, a section of skin is first crushed with a hemostat then slit with scissors. The foreskin is drawn over the bell shaped portion of the clamp and inserted through a hole in the base of the clamp. The clamp is then tightened, "crushing the foreskin between the bell and the base plate." The crushing limits bleeding (provides hemostasis). While the flared bottom of the bell fits tightly against the hole of the base plate, the foreskin is then cut away with a scalpel from above the base plate. The bell prevents the glans being reached by the scalpel.[17]
* With a Mogen clamp, the foreskin is grabbed dorsally with a straight hemostat, and lifted up. The Mogen clamp is then slid between the glans and hemostat, following the angle of the corona to "avoid removing excess skin ventrally and to obtain a superior cosmetic result," than with Gomco or Plastibell circumcisions. The clamp is locked shut, and a scalpel is used to cut the foreskin from the flat (upper) side of the clamp.[18][19]
In poor countries, male circumcision is often performed by nonmedical personnel and under unsterile conditions.[20]
[edit] Cultures and religions
Jewish ritual circumcision
Jewish ritual circumcision
See also: Circumcision in cultures and religions
See also: Brit milah
See also: Khitan (circumcision)
Circumcising cultures may circumcise their males either shortly after birth, during childhood, or around puberty as part of a rite of passage. Circumcision is most prevalent in the Muslim world, parts of South East Asia, Africa, the United States, Israel, and South Korea. It is commonly practised in the Jewish and Islamic faiths.
Under Jewish law circumcision is a mitzva aseh ("positive commandment" to perform an act) and is obligatory for Jewish-born males, and some Jewish male converts. It is only postponed or abrogated in the case of threat to the life or health of the child.[21] It is usually performed by a mohel on the eighth day after birth in a ceremony called a Brit milah (or Bris milah, colloquially simply bris), which means "Covenant of circumcision" in Hebrew. It is considered of such religious importance that the body of an uncircumcised Jewish male will sometimes be circumcised before burial.[22]
Circumcision of Jesus. Illumination from a missal, ca 1460. Municipal Library of Clermont-Ferrand, France
Circumcision of Jesus. Illumination from a missal, ca 1460. Municipal Library of Clermont-Ferrand, France
Circumcision is customary among the Coptic, Ethiopian, and Eritrean Orthodox Churches, and also some other African churches.[7] Some Christian churches in South Africa oppose circumcision, viewing it as a pagan ritual, while others, including the Nomiya church in Kenya,[7][23] require circumcision for membership. Some Christian churches celebrate the Circumcision of Christ.[24][25]
In Islam, circumcision is mentioned in some hadith, but not in the Qur'an. Some Fiqh scholars state that circumcision is recommended (Sunnah); others that it is obligatory.[26] Some have quoted the hadith to argue that the requirement of circumcision is based on the covenant with Abraham.[27] While endorsing circumcision for males, scholars note that it is not a requirement for converting to Islam.[28]
Circumcision in South Korea is largely the result of American cultural and military influence following the Korean War. In West Africa infant circumcision may have had tribal significance as a rite of passage or otherwise in the past; today in some non-Muslim Nigerian societies it is medicalised and is simply a cultural norm.[29]
Circumcision is part of initiation rites in some African, Pacific Islander, and Australian aboriginal traditions in areas such as Arnhem Land,[30] where the practice was introduced by Makassan traders from Sulawesi in the Indonesian Archipelago.[31] Circumcision ceremonies among certain Australian aboriginal societies are noted for their painful nature: subincision is practised amongst some aboriginal peoples in the Western Desert.[32] In the Pacific, ritual circumcision is nearly universal in the Melanesian islands of Fiji and Vanuatu;[33] participation in the traditional land diving on Pentecost Island is reserved for those who have been circumcised.[34]
Circumcision is also commonly practiced in the Polynesian islands of Samoa, Tonga, Niue, and Tikopia. In Samoa it is accompanied by a celebration.
Among some West African animist groups, such as the Dogon and Dowayo, circumcision is taken to represent a removal of "feminine" aspects of the male, turning boys into fully masculine males.[35] Among the Urhobo of southern Nigeria it is symbolic of a boy entering into manhood. The ritual expression, Omo te Oshare ("the boy is now man"), constitutes a rite of passage from one age set to another.[36] For Nilotic peoples, such as the Kalenjin and Maasai, circumcision is a rite of passage observed collectively by a number of boys every few years, and boys circumcised at the same time are taken to be members of a single age set.[37]
[edit] Ethical, psychological and legal considerations
[edit] Ethical issues
A protest against routine infant circumcision
A protest against routine infant circumcision
Main article: Bioethics of neonatal circumcision
The American Medical Association defines “non-therapeutic” circumcision as the non-religious, non-ritualistic, not medically necessary, elective circumcision of male newborns. It states that medical associations in the US, Australia, and Canada do not recommend the routine non-therapeutic circumcision of newborns.[38]
UNAIDS state (2007): "Male circumcision is a voluntary surgical procedure and health care providers must ensure that men and young boys are given all the necessary information to enable them to make free and informed choices either for or against getting circumcised."[39]
Circumcision advocates argue that circumcision prevents infections and slows down the spread of AIDS.[40] Opponents of circumcision question the ethical validity of removing healthy, functioning genital tissue from a minor, arguing that infant circumcision infringes upon individual autonomy and represents a human rights violation.[41][42]
[edit] Consent
Views differ on whether limits should be placed on caregivers having a child circumcised.
Some medical associations take the position that the parents should determine what is in the best interest of the infant or child,[43][38][44] but the Royal Australasian College of Physicians (RACP) and the British Medical Association (BMA) observe that controversy exists on this issue.[45][46] The BMA state that in general, "the parents should determine how best to promote their children’s interests, and it is for society to decide what limits should be imposed on parental choices." They state that because the parents' interests and the child's interests sometimes differ, there are "limits on parents' rights to choose and parents are not entitled to demand medical procedures contrary to their child's best interests." They state that competent children may decide for themselves.[46]
Some argue that the medical problems that have their risk reduced by circumcision are already rare, can be avoided, and, if they occur, can usually be treated in less invasive ways than circumcision. Somerville states that the removal of healthy genital tissue from a minor should not be subject to parental discretion and that physicians who perform the procedure are not acting in accordance with their ethical duties to the patient.[41] Denniston contends that circumcision is harmful and asserts that in the absence of the individual's consent, non-therapeutic child circumcision violates several ethical principles that govern medicine.[47]
Others believe neonatal circumcision is permissible, if parents should so choose. Viens argues that, in a cultural or religious context, circumcision is of significant enough importance that parental consent is sufficient and that there is "an absence of sufficient evidence or persuasive argumentation" to support changing the present policy.[48] Benatar and Benatar argue that circumcision can be beneficial to a male before he would be able to otherwise provide consent, that "it is far from obvious that circumcision reduces sexual pleasure," and that "it is far from clear that non-circumcision leaves open a future person’s options in every regard."[49]
[edit] Psychological and emotional consequences
The British Medical Association (2006) state that "it is now widely accepted, including by the BMA, that this surgical procedure has medical and psychological risks."[46] Goldman (1999) discussed the possible trauma of circumcision on children and parents, anxieties over the circumcised state, a tendency to repeat the trauma, and suggested a need on the part of circumcised doctors to find medical justifications for the procedure.[50] Milos asserts the existence of "excruciating pain, perinatal encoding of the brain with violence, interruption of maternal-infant bonding, betrayal of infant trust..." among other consequences, and points to support groups providing information to Jewish parents "who are grappling with this difficult issue" as well as men "who perceive themselves as victims of a sexual assault."[12] Moses et al. (1998) state that "scientific evidence is lacking" for psychological and emotional harm, and cite a longitudinal study finding no difference in developmental and behavioural indices.[51]
[edit] Legality
Main article: Circumcision and law
In 2001, Sweden allowed only persons certified by the National Board of Health to circumcise infants, requiring a medical doctor or an anesthesia nurse to accompany the circumciser and for anaesthetic to be applied beforehand. Jews and Muslims in Sweden objected to the law,[52] and in 2001, the World Jewish Congress stated that it was “the first legal restriction on Jewish religious practice in Europe since the Nazi era.”[53] In 2005, the Swedish National Board of Health and Welfare reviewed the law and recommended that it be maintained. In 2006, the U.S. State Department's report on Sweden stated that most Jewish mohels had been certified under the law and 3000 Muslim and 40–50 Jewish boys were circumcised each year.[54]
In 2006, a Finnish court found that a parent's actions in having her 4-year-old son circumcised were illegal. The prosecutor argued that, "part of healthy genitalia is removed without medical foundation, or competent consent". No punishment was assigned by the court.[55] In 2008, the Finnish government was reported to be considering a new law to legalise circumcision if the practioner is a doctor and if the child consents..[56]
[edit] Pain and pain relief during circumcision
According to the American Academy of Pediatrics' 1999 Circumcision Policy Statement, “There is considerable evidence that newborns who are circumcised without analgesia experience pain and psychologic stress.”[43] It therefore recommended using pain relief for circumcision.[43] One of the supporting studies, Taddio 1997, found a correlation between circumcision and intensity of pain response during vaccination months later. While acknowledging that there may be "other factors" besides circumcision to account for different levels of pain response, they stated that they did not find evidence of such. They concluded "pretreatment and postoperative management of neonatal circumcision pain is recommended based on these results."[57] Other medical associations also cite evidence that circumcision without anesthetic is painful.[58][59]
Stang, 1998, found 45% of physicians used anaesthesia – most commonly a dorsal penile nerve block – for infant circumcisions. Obstetricians used anaesthesia significantly less often (25%) than family practitioners (56%) or pediatricians (71%).[60] Howard et. al (1998) studied US medical doctor residency programs, and stated that 26% of the programs that taught the circumcision procedure "failed to provide instruction in anesthesia/analgesia for the procedure." They concluded: "Given the overwhelming evidence that neonatal circumcision is painful and the existence of safe and effective anesthesia/analgesia methods, residency training in neonatal circumcision should include instruction in pain relief techniques."[61]
J.M. Glass, 1999, stated that Jewish ritual circumcision is so quick that "most mohelim do not routinely use any anaesthesia as they feel there is probably no need in the neonate. However, there is no Talmudic objection and should the parents wish for local anaesthetic cream to be applied there is no reason why this cannot be done."[21] Tannenbaum and Shechet, 2000, stated that an “authentic, traditional bris performed by a mohel does not use clamps, so there is no pain associated with crushing tissue.”[62] They also asserted that due to the speed of the procedure and rarity of complication, it is “more humane not to subject the infant to a local anesthetic.”[62]
Lander et al., found that babies circumcised without pain relief "exhibited homogeneous responses that consisted of sustained elevation of heart rate and high pitched cry throughout the circumcision and following. Two newborns ... became ill following circumcision (choking and apnea)."[2] A 2004 Cochrane review, which compared the dorsal penile nerve block and EMLA (topical anaesthesia) found both anaesthetics appear safe, but neither of them completely eliminated pain.[63] Razmus et al. reported that newborns circumcised with the dorsal block and the ring block in combination with the concentrated oral sucrose had the lowest pain scores.[64] Ng et al. found that EMLA cream, in addition to local anaesthetic, effectively reduces the sharp pain induced by needle puncture.[65]
Williams (2003) argued that human attitudes toward the pain that animals (including humans) experience may not be based on speciesism; developing an analogy between attitudes toward the pain pigs endure while having their tails "docked", and "our culture's indifference to the pain that male human infants experience while being circumcised."[66]
[edit] Sexual effects
Main article: Sexual effects of circumcision
The sexual effects of circumcision are the subject of much debate. The American Academy of Pediatrics (1999) stated "There are anecdotal reports that penile sensation and sexual satisfaction are decreased for circumcised males", however they also stated that "[a] survey of adult males using self-report suggests more varied sexual practice and less sexual dysfunction in circumcised adult men." They continued, "Masters and Johnson noted no difference in exteroceptive and light tactile discrimination on the ventral or dorsal surfaces of the glans penis between circumcised and uncircumcised men."[43] In January 2007, The American Academy of Family Physicians (AAFP) stated "The effect of circumcision on penile sensation or sexual satisfaction is unknown. Because the epithelium of a circumcised glans becomes cornified, and because some feel nerve over-stimulation leads to desensitization, many believe that the glans of a circumcised penis is less sensitive. [...] No valid evidence to date, however, supports the notion that being circumcised affects sexual sensation or satisfaction."[58]
Conversely, Boyle et al. (2002) stated that "the genitally intact male has thousands of fine touch receptors and other highly erogenous nerve endings—many of which are lost to circumcision, with an inevitable reduction in sexual sensation experienced by circumcised males."[67] They concluded, "Evidence has also started to accumulate that male circumcision may result in lifelong physical, sexual, and sometimes psychological harm as well." Fink et. al. (2002) found a statistically significant increase in erectile dysfunction in circumcised men."[68]
[edit] Medical aspects
Main article: Medical analysis of circumcision
The American Medical Association stated in 1999: "Virtually all current policy statements from specialty societies and medical organizations do not recommend routine neonatal circumcision, and support the provision of accurate and unbiased information to parents to inform their choice."[69] The British Medical Association, states “there is significant disagreement about whether circumcision is overall a beneficial, neutral or harmful procedure. At present, the medical literature on the health, including sexual health, implications of circumcision is contradictory, and often subject to claims of bias in research.”[46] Cost-benefit analyses have varied. Some found a small net benefit of circumcision,[70][71][verification needed] some found a small net decrement,[72][73] and one found that the benefits and risks balanced each other out and suggested that the decision could "most reasonably be made on nonmedical factors."[74]
[edit] Complications from circumcision
Main article: Medical analysis of circumcision
Though one study found that complications, as observed in the immediate postbirth period only, occur in about 0.2% of circumcisions,[75] complications from bleeding, infection and poorly carried out circumcisions can be catastrophic.[76] According to the American Medical Association (AMA), blood loss and infection are the most common complications, but most bleeding is minor and can be stopped by applying pressure.[38] Kaplan identified other complications, including urinary fistulas, meatal stenosis, chordee, cysts, lymphedema, ulceration of the glans, necrosis of all or part of the penis, hypospadias, epispadias, impotence and removal of too much tissue, sometimes causing secondary phimosis. He stated “Virtually all of these complications are preventable with only a modicum of care" and "most such complications occur at the hands of inexperienced operators who are neither urologists nor surgeons.”[77]
A penis that has been circumcised (a skin bridge is present in this example).
A penis that has been circumcised (a skin bridge is present in this example).
A penis that has not been circumcised.
A penis that has not been circumcised.
Complication rates ranging from 0.06% to 55% have been cited.[78] Infant circumcision may result in skin bridges,[79] and meatal stenosis may be a common longer-term complication from circumcision.[80][81] The RACP states that the penis is lost in 1 in 1,000,000 circumcisions.[82]
Deaths have been reported.[77][83] The American Academy of Family Physicians states that death is rare, and cites an estimated death rate of 1 infant in 500,000 from circumcision.[58] Gairdner's 1949 study reported that an average of 16 children per year out of about 90,000 died following circumcision in the UK. He found that most deaths had occurred suddenly under anaesthesia and could not be explained further, but hemorrhage and infection had also proven fatal. Deaths attributed to phimosis and circumcision were grouped together, but Gairdner argued that such deaths were probably due to the circumcision operation.[84]
Adult circumcisions are often performed without clamps, and require 4 to 6 weeks of abstinence from masturbation or intercourse after the operation to allow the wound to heal.[citation needed]
[edit] HIV and other sexually transmitted diseases
In March 2007, WHO and the Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS) stated that male circumcision is an effective intervention for HIV prevention, but also noted that male circumcision only provides partial protection and should not replace other interventions to prevent the heterosexual transmission of HIV.[14] The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) state that several types of research have documented that male circumcision significantly reduces the risk of HIV acquisition by men during penile-vaginal sex. Both the WHO and CDC indicate that it may not reduce HIV transmission from men to women, and that data is lacking for the transmission rate of men who engage in anal sex with either a female or male partner, as either the insertive or receptive partner.[14][85]
The World Health Organization (WHO) stated that studies of three trials provide compelling evidence that male circumcision provides a 50–60% reduction in HIV transmission from female to male.[86] All three trials were stopped early by their monitoring boards, because it was judged that the significant reductions in HIV incidence made it unethical to continue following control group participants without offering circumcision.[87] WHO and UNAIDS have stated that scientific findings regarding the role of male circumcision in preventing heterosexual HIV infection are particularly relevant in regions where the incidence of heterosexually acquired HIV infection is high, such as Sub-Saharan Africa, and stressed that the procedure must be carried out safely and under conditions of informed consent.[88][89] Before there were any results from randomized controlled trials, reviews of observational data differed as to whether there was sufficient evidence for an intervention effect of circumcision against HIV.[90][91]
McCoombe et al. stated that a layer of keratin could provide protection from viral entry, and found that the keratin is thinner on the foreskin than the glans penis, and thinnest on the inner surface of the foreskin.[92]
While more than 40 epidemiological studies have demonstrated that circumcision has a protective effect against male acquisition of HIV,[93] other reports have indicated that circumcision has little to no effect on HIV transmission.[94][95][96] Furthermore, some have challenged the validity of the African randomized controlled trials, prompting a number of researchers to question the effectiveness of circumcision as an HIV prevention strategy.[97][98]
A meta-analysis found that circumcision is associated with lower rates of syphilis, chancroid and possibly genital herpes.[99]
[edit] Hygiene, and infectious and chronic conditions
Studies have found that boys with foreskins tend to have higher rates of various infections and inflammations of the penis than those who are circumcised.[100][101][102] The foreskin may harbor bacteria and become infected if it is not cleaned properly,[103] but may become inflamed if it is cleaned too often with soap.[104] Also, the forcible retraction of the foreskin in boys can lead to infections.[78]
Circumcision is one treatment for balanitis. The usual treatment for balanoposthitis is to use topical antibiotics (metronidazole cream) and antifungals (clotrimazole cream) or low-potency steroid creams.[105]
Several studies have shown that uncircumcised men are at greater risk of human papilloma virus (HPV) infection.[106][107][108] One study found no statistically significant difference in the incidence of HPV infection between circumcised and uncircumcised men, but did note a higher prevalence of urethritis in the uncircumcised.[109] Results of the 1999 to 2004 United States National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey demonstrated that more circumcised men reported having been diagnosed with genital warts compared with uncircumcised men (4.5% and 2.4%, respectively).[110]
Twelve studies have indicated that neonatal circumcision reduces the rate of Urinary tract infections (UTI's) in male infants by a factor of about 10.[111] Some UTI studies have been criticized for not taking into account a high rate of UTI's among premature infants, who are usually not circumcised because of their fragile health status.[43] The AMA stated that “depending on the model employed, approximately 100 to 200 circumcisions would need to be performed to prevent 1 UTI," and noted one decision analysis model that concluded that circumcision was not justified as a preventative measure against UTI.[38]
[edit] Penile cancer
Penile cancer affects from 0.82 per 100,000 in Denmark to 10.5 per 100,000 men per year in parts of India (0.9 to 1 per 100,000 in the United States).[43] Studies have reported a rate of penile cancer from 3 to 22 times higher in uncircumcised than circumcised men.[112][113]
The American Academy of Pediatrics (1999) stated that studies suggest that neonatal circumcision confers some protection from penile cancer, but circumcision at a later age does not seem to confer the same level of protection. Further, because penile cancer is a rare disease, the risk of penile cancer developing in an uncircumcised man, although increased compared with a circumcised man, remains low.[43]
The American Cancer Society (2006) stated, "The current consensus of most experts is that circumcision should not be recommended as a prevention strategy for penile cancer."[114]
[edit] Policies of various national medical associations
[edit] United States
The American Academy of Pediatrics (1999) does not recommend that all infant boys be circumcised, and state that parents should choose what is best for their child by looking at the benefits and risks.[115] If parents choose to circumcise the AAP also recommended using analgesia to reduce pain associated with circumcision, and that circumcision only be performed on newborns who are stable and healthy.[116]
The American Academy of Family Physicians (2007) recommends that physicians discuss the potential harms and benefits of circumcision with all parents or legal guardians considering circumcision for newborn boys.[117]
The American Medical Association supports the general principles of the 1999 Circumcision Policy Statement of the American Academy of Pediatrics.[38]
The American Urological Association (2007) believes that neonatal circumcision has potential medical benefits and advantages as well as disadvantages and risks. "[118]
[edit] Canada
The Fetus and Newborn Committee of the Canadian Paediatric Society posted "Circumcision: Information for Parents" in November 2004,[59] and "Neonatal circumcision revisited" in 1996. The 1996 position statement says that "circumcision of newborns should not be routinely performed," (a statement with which the Royal Australasian College of Physicians concurs,) and the 2004 advice to parents says it "does not recommend circumcision for newborn boys. Many pediatricians no longer perform circumcisions."[44]
[edit] United Kingdom
The British Medical Association's position (June 2006) was that male circumcision for medical purposes should only be used where less invasive procedures are either unavailable or not as effective. The BMA specifically refrained from issuing a policy regarding “non-therapeutic circumcision,” stating that as a general rule, it “believes that parents should be entitled to make choices about how best to promote their children’s interests, and it is for society to decide what limits should be imposed on parental choices.”[119]
[edit] Australasia
The Royal Australasian College of Physicians states "there is no medical indication for routine neonatal circumcision". It states, "If the operation is to be performed, the medical attendant should ensure this is done by a competent operator, using appropriate anaesthesia and in a safe child-friendly environment"[45]
The Tasmanian President of the Australian Medical Association (AMA), Haydn Walters, has stated that the AMA would support a call to ban circumcision for non-medical, non-religious reasons.[120]
[edit] History of circumcision
Main article: History of male circumcision
Ancient Egyptian carved scene of circumcision, from the inner northern wall of the Temple of Khonspekhrod at the Precinct of Mut, Luxor, Egypt. Eighteenth dynasty, Amenhotep III, c. 1360 BC.
Ancient Egyptian carved scene of circumcision, from the inner northern wall of the Temple of Khonspekhrod at the Precinct of Mut, Luxor, Egypt. Eighteenth dynasty, Amenhotep III, c. 1360 BC.
It has been variously proposed that circumcision began as a religious sacrifice, as a rite of passage marking a boy's entrance into adulthood, as a form of sympathetic magic to ensure virility, as a means of suppressing (or enhancing) sexual pleasure or to increase a man's attractiveness to women, or as an aid to hygiene where regular bathing was impractical, among other possibilities. Immerman et al. suggest that circumcision causes lowered sexual arousal of pubescent males, and hypothesize that this was a competitive advantage to tribes practicing circumcision, leading to its spread regardless of whether the people understood this.[121] It is possible that circumcision arose independently in different cultures for different reasons.
The oldest documentary evidence for circumcision comes from ancient Egypt.[122] Circumcision was common, although not universal, among ancient Semitic peoples.[123] In the aftermath of the conquests of Alexander the Great, however, Greek dislike of circumcision (they regarded a man as truly "naked" only if his prepuce was retracted) led to a decline in its incidence among many peoples that had previously practised it.[124]
[edit] Medical circumcision in the 19th century and early 20th century
Family circumcision set and trunk, ca. eighteenth century Wooden box covered in cow hide with silver implements: silver trays, clip, pointer, silver flask, spice vessel.
Family circumcision set and trunk, ca. eighteenth century Wooden box covered in cow hide with silver implements: silver trays, clip, pointer, silver flask, spice vessel.
There are several hypotheses to explain why infant circumcision was accepted in the United States about the year 1900. The germ theory of disease elicited an image of the human body as a conveyance for many dangerous germs, making the public "germ phobic" and suspicious of dirt and bodily secretions. Because of its function, the penis became "dirty" by association, and from this premise circumcision was seen as preventative medicine to be practiced universally.[125] In the view of many practitioners at the time, circumcision was a method of treating and preventing masturbation.[125] It was also said to protect against syphilis,[126] phimosis, paraphimosis, balanitis, and "excessive venery" (which was believed to produce paralysis).[125] Gollaher states that physicians advocating circumcision in the late nineteenth century expected public skepticism, and refined their arguments to overcome it.[125]
Infant circumcision was taken up in the United States, Australia and the English-speaking parts of Canada, South Africa and to a lesser extent in the United Kingdom and New Zealand. Although it is difficult to determine historical circumcision rates, one estimate[3] of infant circumcision rates in the United States holds that 30% of newborn American boys were being circumcised in 1900, 55% in 1925, and 72% in 1950.
[edit] Circumcision since 1945
In 1949, the United Kingdom's newly-formed National Health Service removed infant circumcision from its list of covered services. Since then, circumcision has been an out-of-pocket cost to parents, and the proportion of newborns circumcised in England and Wales has fallen to less than one percent. In Canada, individual provincial health services began delisting circumcision in the 1980s.
In South Korea, circumcision grew in popularity following the establishment of the United States trusteeship in 1945 and the spread of American influence. More than 90% of South Korean high school boys are now circumcised, but the average age of circumcision is 12 years.[127]
In some South African ethnic groups, circumcision has roots in several belief systems, and is mostly performed on teenage boys.
A study in 1987 found that the prominent reasons for parents choosing circumcision were "concerns about the attitudes of peers and their sons' self concept in the future," rather than medical concerns.[4] A 2005 study speculated that increased recognition of the potential benefits may be responsible for an observed increase in the rate of neonatal circumcision in the USA between 1988 and 2000.[5]
[edit] Prevalence of circumcision
Estimates by country of prevalence of circumcision; dark red <20%, gold 20-80%, green >80%
Estimates by country of prevalence of circumcision; dark red <20%, gold 20-80%, green >80%
Main article: Prevalence of circumcision
Estimates of the proportion of males that are circumcised worldwide vary from one-sixth[128] to a third.[129] WHO has estimated that 664,500,000 males aged 15 and over are circumcised (30% global prevalence), with almost 70% of these being Muslim.[88] Prevalence is near universal in the Middle East and Central Asia.[88] WHO states that "there is generally little non-religious circumcision in Asia, with the exceptions of the Republic of Korea and the Philippines".[88] WHO presents a map of estimated prevalence in which the level is generally low (< 20%) across Europe,[88] and Klavs et al. report findings that "support the notion that the prevalence is low in Europe".[130] In Latin America, prevalence is universally low.[131] Estimates for individual countries include Spain[132], Colombia[132] and Denmark[133] less than 2%, Finland[134] and Brazil[132] 7%, Taiwan[135] 9% and Thailand[132] 13%.
WHO estimates prevalence in the United States and Canada at 75% and 30%, respectively.[88] Prevalence in Africa varies from less than 20% in some southern African countries to near universal in North and West Africa.[131] The circumcision rate has declined sharply in Australia since the 1970s, leading to an age-graded fall in prevalence, with a 2000-01 survey finding 32% of those aged 16-19 years circumcised, 50% for 20-29 years and 64% for those aged 30-39 years.[136][137] Prevalence in the UK is also age-graded, with 12% of those aged 16-19 years circumcised and 20% of those aged 40-44 years.[138]
[edit] See also
* Brit milah
* Circumcision scar
* Foreskin restoration
* Genital integrity
* Genital modification and mutilation
* Holy Prepuce
* Preputioplasty, alternative to circumcision in the treatment for phimosis
[edit] Further reading
* Billy Ray Boyd. Circumcision Exposed: Rethinking a Medical and Cultural Tradition. Freedom, CA: The Crossing Press, 1998. (ISBN 978-0-89594-939-4)
* Anne Briggs. Circumcision: What Every Parent Should Know. Charlottesville, VA: Birth & Parenting Publications, 1985. (ISBN 978-0-9615484-0-7)
* Robert Darby. A surgical temptation: The demonization of the foreskin and the rise of circumcision in Britain. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2005. (ISBN 978-0-226-13645-5)
* Aaron J. Fink, M.D. Circumcision: A Parent's Decision for Life. Kavanah Publishing Company, Inc., 1988. (ISBN 978-0-9621347-0-8)
* Paul M. Fleiss, M.D. and Frederick Hodges, D. Phil. What Your Doctor May Not Tell You About Circumcision. New York: Warner Books, 2002. (ISBN 978-0-446-67880-3)
* Leonard B. Glick. Marked in Your Flesh: Circumcision from Ancient Judea to Modern America. New York: Oxford University Press, 2005. (ISBN 978-0-19-517674-2)
* David Gollaher. Circumcision: A History of the World's Most Controversial Surgery. New York: Basic Books, 2000. (ISBN 0465026532)
* Ronald Goldman, Ph.D. Circumcision: The Hidden Trauma. Boston: Vanguard, 1996. (ISBN 978-0-9644895-3-0)
* Paysach J. Krohn, Rabbi. Bris Milah. Circumcision—The Covenant Of Abraham/A Compendium of Laws, Rituals, And Customs From Birth To Bris, Anthologized From Talmudic, And Traditional Sources. New York: Mesorah Publications, 1985, 2005.
* Brian J. Morris, Ph.D., D.Sc. In Favour of Circumcision. Sydney: UNSW Press, 1999. (ISBN 978-0-86840-537-7)
* Peter Charles Remondino. History of Circumcision from the Earliest Times to the Present. Philadelphia and London; F. A. Davis; 1891.
* Rosemary Romberg. Circumcision: The Painful Dilemma. South Hadley, MA Bergan & Garvey, 1985. (ISBN 978-0-89789-073-1)
* Edgar J Schoen, M.D. Ed Schoen, MD on Circumcision. Berkeley, CA: RDR Books, 2005. (ISBN 978-1-57143-123-3)
* Edward Wallerstein. Circumcision: An American Health Fallacy. New York: Springer, 1980 (ISBN 978-0-8261-3240-6)
* Gerald N. Weiss M.D. and Andrea W Harter. Circumcision: Frankly Speaking. Wiser Publications, 1998. (ISBN 978-0-9667219-0-4)
* Yosef David Weisberg, Rabbi. Otzar Habris. Encyclopedia of the laws and customs of Bris Milah and Pidyon Haben. Jerusalem: Hamoer, 2002.
[edit] Notes and references
Some referenced articles are available on-line only in the Circumcision Information and Resource Page’s (CIRP) library or in The Circumcision Reference Library (CIRCS). CIRP articles are chosen from an anti-circumcision point of view, and text in support of this position is often highlighted on-screen using HTML. CIRCS articles are chosen from a pro-circumcision point of view. If documents are not freely available on-line elsewhere, links to articles in one or other of these two websites may be provided.
1. ^ Dictionary definitions of circumcision:
* "The act of cutting off the prepuce or foreskin of males, or the internal labia of females." Webster's Revised Unabridged Dictionary (1913) [1]
* "to remove the foreskin of (males) sometimes as a religious rite." The Macquarie Dictionary (2nd Edition, 1991)
* "Cut off foreskin of (as Jewish or Mohammedan rite, or surgically), Concise Oxford Dictionary, 5th Edition, 1964
Circumcision defined in a medical context:
* "Male circumcision is the surgical removal of all or part of the foreskin of the penis." Information Package on Male Circumcision and HIV Prevention:Insert 1, World Health Organization
* "Circumcision, surgical removal of all or part of the foreskin of the human male...", "Circumcision", Microsoft Encarta, 2007.
* "Male circumcision is an elective surgery to remove the foreskin..." Circumcision, British Columbia Health Guide, June 2, 2006. Retrieved July 18, 2007.
* "Circumcision is surgery..." Pain and Your Infant: Medical Procedures, Circumcision and Teething, University of Michigan Health System, February 2007. Retrieved July 18, 2007.
* " Circumcision is cutting away part of the foreskin... When this surgery is performed..." Newborn Care, Danbury Hospital website. Retrieved July 18, 2007.
2. ^ Hodges, F.M. (Fall 2001). "The ideal prepuce in ancient Greece and Rome: male genital aesthetics and their relation to lipodermos, circumcision, foreskin restoration, and the kynodesme.". The Bulletin of the History of Medicine 75 (3): 375–405. doi:10.1353/bhm.2001.0119. PMID 11568485.
3. ^ Wrana, P. (1939). "Historical review: Circumcision". Archives of Pediatrics 56: 385–392. as quoted in: Zoske, Joseph (Winter 1998). "Male Circumcision: A Gender Perspective". The Journal of Men's Studies 6 (2): 189–208. Retrieved on 2006-06-14.
4. ^ Gollaher, David L. (February 2000). Circumcision: a history of the world’s most controversial surgery. New York, NY: Basic Books, 53–72. ISBN 978-0-465-04397-2 LCCN 99-40015.
5. ^ "Circumcision". American-Israeli Cooperative Enterprise. Retrieved on 2006-10-03.
6. ^ S.A.H Rizvi, S.A A Naqvi, M Hussain, A.S Hasan (1999). "Religious circumcision: a Muslim view" (PDF). BJU International 83 (s1): 13–16. doi:10.1046/j.1464-410x.1999.0830s1013.x.
7. ^ a b c Customary in some Coptic and other churches:
* "The Coptic Christians in Egypt and the Ethiopian Orthodox Christians— two of the oldest surviving forms of Christianity— retain many of the features of early Christianity, including male circumcision. Circumcision is not prescribed in other forms of Christianity... Some Christian churches in South Africa oppose the practice, viewing it as a pagan ritual, while others, including the Nomiya church in Kenya, require circumcision for membership and participants in focus group discussions in Zambia and Malawi mentioned similar beliefs that Christians should practice circumcision since Jesus was circumcised and the Bible teaches the practice." Male Circumcision: context, criteria and culture (Part 1), Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS, February 26, 2007.
* "The decision that Christians need not practice circumcision is recorded in Acts 15; there was never, however, a prohibition of circumcision, and it is practiced by Coptic Christians." "circumcision", The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition, 2001-05.
8. ^ "Male circumcision: Global trends and determinants of prevalence, safety and acceptability". World Health Organization (2007). Retrieved on 2008-08-20.
9. ^ "Insert 2". Information Package on Male Circumcision and HIV Prevention. World Health Organization (2007). Retrieved on 2007-08-15.
10. ^ A M K Rickwood, S E Kenny, S C Donnell (2000). "Towards evidence based circumcision of English boys: survey of trends in practice" (PDF). BMJ 321 (7264): 792–793. doi:10.1136/bmj.321.7264.792.
11. ^ Schoen, Edgar J (2007). "Should newborns be circumcised? Yes". Can Fam Physician 53 (12): 2096–8, 2100–2. PMID 18077736. Retrieved on 2008-05-02.
12. ^ a b Milos, Marilyn Fayre; Donna Macris (March–April 1992). "Circumcision: A medical or a human rights issue?". Journal of Nurse-Midwifery 37 (2 S1): S87–S96. doi:10.1016/0091-2182(92)90012-R. PMID 1573462. Retrieved on 2007-04-06.
13. ^ "Neonatal Circumcision". Retrieved on 2008-04-20.
14. ^ a b c (March 28, 2007). "New Data on Male Circumcision and HIV Prevention: Policy and Programme Implications" (PDF). World Health Organization. Retrieved on 2007-08-13.
15. ^ Holman, John R.; Evelyn L. Lewis, Robert L. Ringler (August 1995). "Neonatal circumcision techniques – includes patient information sheet". American Family Physician 52 (2): 511–520. ISSN 0002-838X PMID 7625325. Retrieved on 2006-06-29.
16. ^ Herbert, Barrie; et al (1965). "The Plastibell Technique for Circumcision". Br Med J 2 (5456): 273–275. PMID 14310205.
17. ^ Peleg, David; Ann Steiner (September 15, 1998). "The Gomco Circumcision: Common Problems and Solutions". American Family Physician 58 (4): 891–898. ISSN 0002-838X PMID 9767725. Retrieved on 2006-06-29.
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19. ^ Reynolds, RD (July 1996). "Use of the Mogen clamp for neonatal circumcision" (Abstract). American Family Physician 54 (1): 177–182. PMID 8677833. Retrieved on 2006-07-18.
20. ^ "In Africa, a problem with circumcision and AIDS".
21. ^ a b Glass, J.M. (January 1999). "Religious circumcision: a Jewish view" (PDF). BJU International 83 (Supplement 1): 17–21. doi:10.1046/j.1464-410x.1999.0830s1017.x. PMID 10766529. Retrieved on 2006-10-18.
22. ^ Lamm, Maurice [1969]. The Jewish Way in Death and Mourning. New York: Jonathan David, 239–240.
23. ^ Mattson, C.L.; R.C. Bailey, R. Muga, R. Poulussen, T. Onyango (February 2005). "Acceptability of male circumcision and predictors of circumcision preference among men and women in Nyanza Province, Kenya". AIDS Care 17 (2): 182–194. doi:10.1080/09540120512331325671. PMID 15763713.
24. ^ "Greek Orthodox Archdiocese calendar of Holy Days".
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26. ^ Al-Munajjid, Muhammed Salih. "Question #9412: Circumcision: how it is done and the rulings on it". Islam Q&A. Retrieved on 2006-07-01.
27. ^ Al-Munajjid, Muhammed Salih. "Question #7073: The health and religious benefits of circumcision". Islam Q&A. Retrieved on 2006-07-01.
28. ^ al-Sabbagh, Muhammad Lutfi (1996). Islamic ruling on male and female circumcision. Alexandria: World Health Organization, 16.
29. ^ Ajuwon et al., "Indigenous surgical practices in rural southwestern Nigeria: Implications for disease," Health Educ. Res..1995; 10: 379–384 Health Educ. Res..1995; 10: 379–384 Retrieved 3 October 2006
30. ^ Aaron David Samuel Corn (2001). "Ngukurr Crying: Male Youth in a Remote Indigenous Community" (PDF). Working Paper Series No. 2. University of Wollongong. Retrieved on 2006-10-18.
31. ^ "Migration and Trade". Green Turtle Dreaming. Retrieved on 2006-10-18. “In exchange for turtles and trepang the Makassans introduced tobacco, the practice of circumcision and knowledge to build sea-going canoes.”
32. ^ Jones, IH (June 1969). "Subincision among Australian western desert Aborigines". British Journal of Medical Psychology 42 (2): 183–190. ISSN 0007-1129 PMID 5783777.
33. ^ "RECENT GUEST SPEAKER". Australian AIDS Fund Incorporated (2006). Retrieved on 2006-07-01.
34. ^ "Weird & Wonderful". United Travel. Retrieved on 2006-07-01.
35. ^ "Circumcision amongst the Dogon". The Non-European Components of European Patrimony (NECEP) Database (2006). Retrieved on 2006-09-03.
36. ^ Agberia, John Tokpabere (2006). "Aesthetics and Rituals of the Opha Ceremony among the Urhobo People" (PDF). Journal of Asian and African Studies 41 (3): 249–260. doi:10.1177/0021909606063880. Retrieved on 2006-10-18.
37. ^ "Masai of Kenya". Retrieved on 2007-04-06. “Authority derives from the age-group and the age-set. Prior to circumcision a natural leader or olaiguenani is selected; he leads his age-group through a series of rituals until old age, sharing responsibility with a select few, of whom the ritual expert (oloiboni) is the ultimate authority. Masai youths are not circumcised until they are mature, and a new age-set is initiated together at regular intervals of twelve to fifteen years. The young warriors (ilmurran) remain initiates for some time, using blunt arrows to hunt small birds which are stuffed and tied to a frame to form a head-dress.”
38. ^ a b c d e "Report 10 of the Council on Scientific Affairs (I-99):Neonatal Circumcision". 1999 AMA Interim Meeting: Summaries and Recommendations of Council on Scientific Affairs Reports 17. American Medical Association (December 1999). Retrieved on 2006-06-13.
39. ^ "Information Package on Male Circumcision and HIV Prevention".
40. ^ Auvert, Bertran; Dirk Taljaard, Emmanuel Lagarde, Joëlle Sobngwi-Tambekou, Rémi Sitta, Adrian Puren (November 2005). "Randomized, Controlled Intervention Trial of Male Circumcision for Reduction of HIV Infection Risk: The ANRS 1265 Trial" (PDF). PLoS Medicine 2 (11): 1112–1122. doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.0020298. PMID 16231970. Retrieved on 2006-07-09.
41. ^ a b Somerville, Margaret (November 2000). "Altering Baby Boys’ Bodies: The Ethics of Infant Male Circumcision", The ethical canary: science, society, and the human spirit. New York, NY: Viking Penguin Canada, 202–219. LCCN 2001-369341. ISBN 0670893021. Retrieved on 2007-02-12.
42. ^ Van Howe, R.S.; J.S. Svoboda, J.G. Dwyer, and C.P. Price (January 1999). "Involuntary circumcision: the legal issues" (PDF). BJU International 83 (Supp1): 63–73. doi:10.1046/j.1464-410x.1999.0830s1063.x. PMID 10349416. Retrieved on 2007-02-12.
43. ^ a b c d e f g American Academy of Pediatrics Task Force on Circumcision (March 1, 1999). "Circumcision Policy Statement" (PDF). Pediatrics 103 (3): 686–693. doi:10.1542/peds.103.3.686. ISSN 0031-4005 PMID 10049981. Retrieved on 2006-07-01.
44. ^ a b Fetus and Newborn Committee (March 1996). "Neonatal circumcision revisited". Canadian Medical Association Journal 154 (6): 769–780. Retrieved on 2006-07-02. “We undertook this literature review to consider whether the CPS should change its position on routine neonatal circumcision from that stated in 1982. The review led us to conclude the following. There is evidence that circumcision results in an approximately 12-fold reduction in the incidence of UTI during infancy. The overall incidence of UTI in male infants appears to be 1% to 2%. The incidence rate of the complications of circumcision reported in published articles varies, but it is generally in the order of 0.2% to 2%. Most complications are minor, but occasionally serious complications occur. There is a need for good epidemiological data on the incidence of the surgical complications of circumcision, of the later complications of circumcision and of problems associated with lack of circumcision. Evaluation of alternative methods of preventing UTI in infancy is required. More information on the effect of simple hygienic interventions is needed. Information is required on the incidence of circumcision that is truly needed in later childhood. There is evidence that circumcision results in a reduction in the incidence of penile cancer and of HIV transmission. However, there is inadequate information to recommend circumcision as a public health measure to prevent these diseases. When circumcision is performed, appropriate attention needs to be paid to pain relief. The overall evidence of the benefits and harms of circumcision is so evenly balanced that it does not support recommending circumcision as a routine procedure for newborns. There is therefore no indication that the position taken by the CPS in 1982 should be changed. When parents are making a decision about circumcision, they should be advised of the present state of medical knowledge about its benefits and harms. Their decision may ultimately be based on personal, religious or cultural factors.
45. ^ a b "Policy Statement On Circumcision" (PDF). Royal Australasian College of Physicians (September 2004). Retrieved on 2007-02-28. “The Paediatrics and Child Health Division, The Royal Australasian College of Physicians (RACP) has prepared this statement on routine circumcision of infants and boys to assist parents who are considering having this procedure undertaken on their male children and for doctors who are asked to advise on or undertake it. After extensive review of the literature the RACP reaffirms that there is no medical indication for routine neonatal circumcision. Circumcision of males has been undertaken for religious and cultural reasons for many thousands of years. It remains an important ritual in some religious and cultural groups.…In recent years there has been evidence of possible health benefits from routine male circumcision. The most important conditions where some benefit may result from circumcision are urinary tract infections, HIV and later cancer of the penis.…The complication rate of neonatal circumcision is reported to be around 1% to 5% and includes local infection, bleeding and damage to the penis. Serious complications such as bleeding, septicaemia and meningitis may occasionally cause death. The possibility that routine circumcision may contravene human rights has been raised because circumcision is performed on a minor and is without proven medical benefit. Whether these legal concerns are valid will be known only if the matter is determined in a court of law. If the operation is to be performed, the medical attendant should ensure this is done by a competent operator, using appropriate anaesthesia and in a safe child-friendly environment. In all cases where parents request a circumcision for their child the medical attendant is obliged to provide accurate information on the risks and benefits of the procedure. Up-to-date, unbiased written material summarising the evidence should be widely available to parents. Review of the literature in relation to risks and benefits shows there is no evidence of benefit outweighing harm for circumcision as a routine procedure in the neonate.”
46. ^ a b c d Medical Ethics Committee (June 2006). "The law and ethics of male circumcision – guidance for doctors". British Medical Association. Retrieved on 2006-07-01.
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50. ^ Goldman, R. (January 1999). "The psychological impact of circumcision" (PDF). BJU International 83 (S1): 93–102. doi:10.1046/j.1464-410x.1999.0830s1093.x. Retrieved on 2006-07-02.
51. ^ Moses, S; Bailey, RC; Ronald AR (1998). "Male circumcision: assessment of health benefits and risks". Sex Transm Infect 74: 368–73.
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108. ^ Hernandez, B.Y.; L.R. Wilkens, X. Zhu, K. McDuffie, P. Thompson, Y.B. Shvetsov, L. Ning and M.T. Goodman (2008 March). "Circumcision and Human Papillomavirus Infection in Men: A Site-Specific Comparison". The Journal of Infectious Diseases 197 (6): 787–794. doi:10.1086/528379. PMID 18284369.
109. ^ Aynaud, O.; D. Piron, G. Bijaoui, and JM Casanova (1999 July). "Developmental factors of urethral human papillomavirus lesions: correlation with circumcision" (PDF). BJU International 84 (1): 57–60. doi:10.1046/j.1464-410x.1999.00104.x. PMID 10444125. Retrieved on 2006-07-09.
110. ^ Dinh, T.H.; M. Sternberg, E.F. Dunne and L.E. Markowitz (April 2008). "Genital Warts Among 18- to 59-Year-Olds in the United States, National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 1999-2004". Sexually Transmitted Diseases 35 (4): 357–360. doi:10.1097/OLQ.0b013e3181632d61. PMID 18360316. “The percentage of circumcised men reporting a diagnosis of genital warts was significantly higher than uncircumcised men, 4.5% (95% CI, 3.6%–5.6%) versus 2.4% (95% CI, 1.5%–4.0%)”
111. ^ Singh-Grewal, D.; J. Macdessi, and J. Craig (August 1, 2005). "Circumcision for the prevention of urinary tract infection in boys: a systematic review of randomised trials and observational studies" (PDF). Archives of Disease in Childhood 90 (8): 853–858. doi:10.1136/adc.2004.049353. PMID 15890696. Retrieved on 2006-09-21.
112. ^ Maden, C; et al (Jan 1993). "History of circumcision, medical conditions, and sexual activity and risk of penile cancer". J Natl Cancer Inst 85 (1): 19–24. doi:10.1093/jnci/85.1.19. PMID 8380060.
113. ^ Schoen, EJ; Oehrli, M; Colby, C; Machin, G (Mar 2000). "The highly protective effect of newborn circumcision against invasive penile cancer". Pediatrics 105 (3): e36. doi:10.1542/peds.105.3.e36.
114. ^ "Can Penile Cancer be Prevented?".
115. ^ "Circumcision Information for Parents". American Academy of Pediatrics (2001).
116. ^ Task Force on Circumcision (March 1, 1999). "Circumcision Policy Statement" (PDF). Pediatrics 103 (3): 686–693. doi:10.1542/peds.103.3.686. ISSN 0031-4005 PMID 10049981. Retrieved on 2006-07-01. “Existing scientific evidence demonstrates potential medical benefits of newborn male circumcision; however, these data are not sufficient to recommend routine neonatal circumcision. In the case of circumcision, in which there are potential benefits and risks, yet the procedure is not essential to the child’s current well-being, parents should determine what is in the best interest of the child. To make an informed choice, parents of all male infants should be given accurate and unbiased information and be provided the opportunity to discuss this decision. It is legitimate for parents to take into account cultural, religious, and ethnic traditions, in addition to the medical factors, when making this decision. Analgesia is safe and effective in reducing the procedural pain associated with circumcision; therefore, if a decision for circumcision is made, procedural analgesia should be provided. If circumcision is performed in the newborn period, it should only be done on infants who are stable and healthy.”
117. ^ "Circumcision: Position Paper on Neonatal Circumcision". American Academy of Family Physicians (2007). Retrieved on 2007-01-30. “Considerable controversy surrounds neonatal circumcision. Putative indications for neonatal circumcision have included preventing UTIs and their sequelae, preventing the contraction of STDs including HIV, and preventing penile cancer as well as other reasons for adult circumcision. Circumcision is not without risks. Bleeding, infection, and failure to remove enough foreskin occur in less than 1% of circumcisions. Evidence-based complications from circumcision include pain, bruising, and meatitis. More serious complications have also occurred. Although numerous studies have been conducted to evaluate these postulates, only a few used the quality of methodology necessary to consider the results as high level evidence.
The evidence indicates that neonatal circumcision prevents UTIs in the first year of life with an absolute risk reduction of about 1% and prevents the development of penile cancer with an absolute risk reduction of less than 0.2%. The evidence suggests that circumcision reduces the rate of acquiring an STD, but careful sexual practices and hygiene may be as effective. Circumcision appears to decrease the transmission of HIV in underdeveloped areas where the virus is highly prevalent. No study has systematically evaluated the utility of routine neonatal circumcision for preventing all medically-indicated circumcisions in later life. Evidence regarding the association between cervical cancer and a woman’s partner being circumcised or uncircumcised, and evidence regarding the effect of circumcision on sexual functioning is inconclusive. If the decision is made to circumcise, anesthesia should be used.
The American Academy of Family Physicians recommends physicians discuss the potential harms and benefits of circumcision with all parents or legal guardians considering this procedure for their newborn son.”
118. ^ American Urological Association. "Circumcision". Retrieved on 2007-08-26.
119. ^ Medical Ethics Committee (June 2006). "The law and ethics of male circumcision – guidance for doctors". British Medical Association. Retrieved on 2006-07-01. “Circumcision for medical purposes Unnecessarily invasive procedures should not be used where alternative, less invasive techniques, are equally efficient and available. It is important that doctors keep up to date and ensure that any decisions to undertake an invasive procedure are based on the best available evidence. Therefore, to circumcise for therapeutic reasons where medical research has shown other techniques to be at least as effective and less invasive would be unethical and inappropriate. Male circumcision in cases where there is a clear clinical need is not normally controversial. Nevertheless, normal anatomical and physiological characteristics of the infant foreskin have in the past been misinterpreted as being abnormal. The British Association of Paediatric Surgeons advises that there is rarely a clinical indication for circumcision. Doctors should be aware of this and reassure parents accordingly.
Non-therapeutic circumcision Male circumcision that is performed for any reason other than physical clinical need is termed non-therapeutic (or sometimes “ritual”) circumcision. Some people ask for non-therapeutic circumcision for religious reasons, some to incorporate a child into a community, and some want their sons to be like their fathers. Circumcision is a defining feature of some faiths. There is a spectrum of views within the BMA’s membership about whether non-therapeutic male circumcision is a beneficial, neutral or harmful procedure or whether it is superfluous, and whether it should ever be done on a child who is not capable of deciding for himself. The medical harms or benefits have not been unequivocally proven except to the extent that there are clear risks of harm if the procedure is done inexpertly. The Association has no policy on these issues. Indeed, it would be difficult to formulate a policy in the absence of unambiguously clear and consistent medical data on the implications of the intervention. As a general rule, however, the BMA believes that parents should be entitled to make choices about how best to promote their children’s interests, and it is for society to decide what limits should be imposed on parental choices.”
120. ^ "Doctors back call for circumcision ban", ABC News (2007-12-09).
121. ^ Immerman, R.S.; W.C. Mackey (Fall-Winter 1997). "A biocultural analysis of circumcision". Social Biology 44 (3-4): 265–275. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9744.1976.tb00285.x. PMID 9446966. }}
122. ^ Tomb artwork from the Sixth Dynasty (2345–2181 BCE) shows men with circumcised penises, and one relief from this period shows the rite being performed on a standing adult male. The Egyptian hieroglyph for "penis" depicts either a circumcised or an erect organ. The examination of Egyptian mummies has found some with foreskins and others who were circumcised.
123. ^ The Book of Jeremiah, written in the sixth century BCE, lists the Egyptians, Jews, Edomites, Ammonites, and Moabites as circumcising cultures. Herodotus, writing in the fifth century BCE, would add the Colchians, Ethiopians, Phoenicians, and Syrians to that list.
124. ^ The writer of the 1 Maccabees wrote that under the Seleucids, many Jewish men attempted to hide or reverse their circumcision so they could exercise in Greek gymnasia, where nudity was the norm. First Maccabees also relates that the Seleucids forbade the practice of brit milah (Jewish circumcision), and punished those who performed it–as well as the infants who underwent it–with death.
125. ^ a b c d Gollaher, David (Fall 1994). "From ritual to science: the medical transformation of circumcision in America". Journal of Social History 28 (1): 5–36. Retrieved on 2007-12-06.
126. ^ "On the influence of circumcision in preventing syphilis" (1855). Medical Times and Gazette NS Vol II: 542–3.
127. ^ Pang, MG; Kim DS (2002). "Extraordinarily high rates of male circumcision in South Korea: history and underlying causes". BJU Int 89 (1): 48–54. doi:10.1046/j.1464-410X.2002.02545.x.
128. ^ Williams, N; L. Kapila (October 1993). "Complications of circumcision". British Journal of Surgery 80 (10): 1231–1236. doi:10.1002/bjs.1800801005. Retrieved on 2006-07-11.
129. ^ Crawford DA. Circumcision: a consideration of some of the controversy. J Child Health Care. 2002 December;6(4):259–70. PMID 12503896
130. ^ Klavs I, Hamers FF (February 2008). "Male circumcision in Slovenia: results from a national probability sample survey". Sex Transm Infect 84 (1): 49–50. doi:10.1136/sti.2007.027524. PMID 17881413.
131. ^ a b Drain, PK; et al (November 2006). "Male circumcision, religion, and infectious diseases: an ecologic analysis of 118 developing countries". BMC Infect Dis 30 (6): 172. doi:10.1186/1471-2334-6-172. PMID 17137513. Retrieved on 2008-04-25.
132. ^ a b c d Castellsagué, X; et al (2002). "Male circumcision, penile human papillomavirus infection, and cervical cancer in female partners". N Engl J Med 346 (15): 1105–12. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa011688. PMID 11948269.
133. ^ Frisch, M; et al (1995). "Falling incidence of penis cancer in an uncircumcised population (Denmark 1943-90)". BMJ 311: 1471. PMID 8520335.
134. ^ Schoen, E J; Colby, C J; Trinh, T To (2006). "Cost analysis of neonatal circumcision in a large health maintenance organization". J Urol 175: 1111–1115. doi:10.1016/S0022-5347(05)00399-X.
135. ^ Ko, MC; et al (April 2007). "Age-specific prevalence rates of phimosis and circumcision in Taiwanese boys". J Formos Med Assoc 106 (4): 302–7. PMID 17475607. “… the prevalence of circumcision slightly increased with age from 7.2% (95% CI, 5.3-10.8%) for boys aged 7 years to 8.7% (95% CI, 6.5-13.3%) for boys aged 13 years.”
136. ^ "In Australia and New Zealand, the circumcision rate has fallen considerably in recent years and it is estimated that currently only 10%-20% of male infants are routinely circumcised." (RACP: 2004)
137. ^ Richters, J; et al. (2006). "Circumcision in Australia: prevalence and effects on sexual health". Int J STD AIDS 17: 547–554. doi:10.1258/095646206778145730. PMID 16925903. “Neonatal circumcision was routine in Australia until the 1970s … In the last generation, Australia has changed from a country where most newborn boys are circumcised to one where circumcision is the minority experience.”
138. ^ Dave, SS; et al (2003). "Male circumcision in Britain: findings from a national probability sample survey". Sex Transm Infect 79: 499–500. doi:10.1136/sti.79.6.499.
[edit] External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to:
Circumcision
[edit] Circumcision opposition
* The Circumcision Information and Resource Pages by Geoffrey T. Falk
* Doctors Opposing Circumcision presided by George C. Denniston, MD, MPH
* National Organization of Circumcision Information Resource Centers by Marilyn Milos, RN
* Sex as Nature Intended It by Kristen O'Hara.
[edit] Circumcision promotion
* Jewish Circumcision – Brit Milah Chabad.org
* Benefits of circumcision: medical, health and sexual by Professor Brian Morris
* Circumcision: a lifetime of medical benefits by Edgar Schoen, BSc., M.D.
[edit] Circumcision techniques
* Description of an adult circumcision from the American Academy of Family Physicians.
* Visualisation of amount of skin removed, showing 'styles' of circumcision.
* Video demonstration of infant circumcision using a Gomco clamp.
[hide]
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Urogenital surgical and other procedures (ICD-9-CM V3 55-71)
Urinary system
kidney: Nephrostomy - Nephrectomy - Kidney transplantation - Nephropexy
ureter: Ureteroscopy - Ureterostomy - Urinary diversion - Ureterosigmoidostomy
urinary bladder: Cystectomy (Suprapubic cystostomy) - Cystoscopy
Reproductive system - male
prostate: Prostatectomy (Transurethral resection of the prostate)
vas deferens: Vasectomy - Vasovasostomy
penis: Circumcision - Penectomy - Penile prosthesis
testes: orchiectomy (Inguinal orchiectomy)
Reproductive system - female
(gynecological surgery)
ovary: Oophorectomy
fallopian tubes: Tubal ligation - Salpingectomy
uterus: Hysterotomy - Hysteroscopy - Pelvic exenteration - Hysterectomy - Vacuum aspiration
vagina: Colposcopy - Culdocentesis - Hymenotomy - Vaginectomy
vulva: Female genital cutting - Vulvectomy
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circumcision"
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Kim Jong-il
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from Kim jong il)
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This is a Korean name; the family name is Kim.
"Dear Leader" redirects here. For the band, see Dear Leader (band). For other heads of state, see List of current heads of state and government.
Kim Jong-il
김정일
Kim Jong-il
Chairman of the National Defense Commission of North Korea
"Highest Post" since 5 September 1998
Incumbent
Assumed office
9 April 1993
President Kim Yong-nam
Premier Hong Song-nam
Pak Pong-ju
Kim Yong-il
Preceded by Kim Il-sung
Supreme Commander of the Korean People's Army
Incumbent
Assumed office
July 1994
Preceded by Kim Il-sung
General Secretary of the Workers' Party of Korea
Incumbent
Assumed office
8 October 1997
Preceded by Kim Il-sung
Born 16 February 1941 (1941-02-16) (age 67)
Vyatskoye, Soviet Union (Soviet records)
16 February 1942 (1942-02-16) (age 66)
Mt. Baekdu, Japanese Korea (North Korean records)
Nationality North Korean
Political party Workers' Party of Korea
Religion Atheist
Kim Jong-il
Chosŏn'gŭl 김정일
Hancha 金正日
McCune-
Reischauer Kim Chŏngil
Revised
Romanization Kim Jeong(-)il
Kim Jong-il (also written as Kim Jong Il) (born February 16, 1941, Vyatskoye, Soviet Union; official biographies state February 16, 1942, Baekdu Mountain, Japanese Korea) is the leader of the Democratic People's Republic of Korea. He is the Chairman of the National Defense Commission, Supreme Commander of the Korean People's Army, and General Secretary of the Workers' Party of Korea (the ruling party since 1948). He succeeded his father Kim Il-sung, founder of North Korea, who died in 1994, and commands the fourth largest standing army in the world. North Korea officially refers to him as the "Dear Leader".
There are a number of disputes among historians in regard to events in Kim Jong-il's life. These relate to his alleged cult of personality, which is discussed here.
Contents
[hide]
* 1 Childhood
o 1.1 Birth
o 1.2 Education
* 2 Early political career (1964-1979)
* 3 Presidium member and party secretary (1980-1994)
* 4 Ruler of North Korea
o 4.1 Economic policies
o 4.2 Foreign relations
o 4.3 Internal politics
* 5 Cult of personality
* 6 Personal life
* 7 Fictional portrayals
* 8 See also
* 9 Notes and references
* 10 Further reading
* 11 External links
Childhood
Birth
Three-year-old Kim Jong-il with his father Kim Il-sung and mother Kim Jong-suk in 1945.
Three-year-old Kim Jong-il with his father Kim Il-sung and mother Kim Jong-suk in 1945.
Kim Jong-il's official biography [1] states that he was born in a secret military camp on Baekdu Mountain (백두산) in northern Korea on February 16, 1942[2]. Official biographers claim that his birth at Baekdu Mountain was foretold by a swallow, and heralded by the appearance of a double rainbow over the mountain and a new star in the heavens. However, Soviet records show he was born in the village of Vyatskoye, near Khabarovsk, in 1941[3] where his father, Kim Il-sung, commanded the 1st Battalion of the Soviet 88th Brigade, made up of Chinese and Korean exiles.
Kim Jong-il's mother, Kim Jong-suk, was Kim Il-sung's first wife. During his youth in the Soviet Union, Kim Jong-il was known as Yuri Irsenovich Kim (Юрий Ирсенович Ким), taking his patronymic from his father's Russified name, Ir-sen.
In 1945, Kim was three years old when World War II ended and Korea regained independence from Japan. His father returned to Pyongyang that September, and in late November Kim returned to Korea via a Soviet ship, landing at Sonbong (선봉군, also Unggi). The family moved into a former Japanese officer's mansion in Pyongyang, with a garden and pool. Kim Jong-il's brother, "Shura" Kim (the first Kim Jong-il, but known by his Russian nickname), drowned there in 1948. In 1949, his mother died in childbirth.[4]
Education
According to his official biography, Kim completed the course of general education between September 1950 and August 1960. He attended Primary School No. 4 and Middle School No. 1 in Pyongyang.[5] This is contested by foreign academics, who believe he is more likely to have received his early education in the People's Republic of China as a precaution to ensure his safety during the Korean War.[6]
Throughout his schooling, Kim was involved in politics. He was active in the Childrens' Union[7] and Democratic Youth League (DYL), taking part in study groups of Marxist political theory and other literature. In September 1957 he became vice-chairman of his middle school's DYL branch. He pursued a programme of anti-factionalism and attempted to encourage greater ideological education among his classmates. He organized academic competitions and seminars, as well as helping to arrange field trips.
During his youth Kim's interests included music, agriculture and automotive repair. At school he repaired trucks and electric motors in a practice workshop, and he often visited factories and farms with his classmates.[8]
Kim Jong Il began studying at Kim Il Sung University in September 1960, majoring in Marxist political economy. His minor subjects included philosophy and military science. While at university, he also undertook production training at Pyongyang Textile Machinery Factory, as a road-working apprentice and as a worker building TV broadcasting equipment.
Kim joined the Workers' Party of Korea in July 1961. He began accompanying his father in "tours of field guidance", which consisted of visits to factories, farms and workplaces around the country.
Kim graduated from Kim Il Sung University in April 1964.[9]
Kim is also said to have received English language education at the University of Malta in the early 1970s, on his infrequent holidays in Malta as guest of Prime Minister Dom Mintoff.[10]
The elder Kim had meanwhile remarried and had another son, Kim Pyong-il (named after Kim Jong-il's drowned brother). Since 1988, Kim Pyong-il has served in a series of North Korean embassies in Europe and is currently the North Korean ambassador to Poland. Foreign commentators suspect that Kim Pyong-il was sent to these distant posts by his father in order to avoid a power struggle between his two sons.[11]
Early political career (1964-1979)
North Korea
This article is part of the series:
Politics and government of
North Korea
* Constitution
* Juche
* Eternal President: Kim Il-sung
* National Defense Commission
o Chairman: Kim Jong-il
* Government
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* Supreme People's Assembly
o President: Kim Yong-nam
* Subdivisions
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o Workers' Party of Korea
* Elections: 2003, 2008
* Korean reunification
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After graduating in 1964, Kim Jong-il began his ascension through the ranks of the ruling Korean Workers' Party (KWP). His entrance to politics was met by the tensions within the global communist movement caused by the Sino-Soviet split. Still following Marxism-Leninism as their core ideology, the KWP had launched an offensive against elements within the party deemed revisionist. Dubbed "anti-Party revisionists", senior cadre had spread feudal Confucian ideas, attempted to water down the party's revolutionary line and ignored orders from General Secretary Kim Il-sung.
Shortly after his graduation, Kim was appointed instructor and section chief to the Party Central Committee. His first activities were undertaking parts of the WPK offensive. He agitated amongst officials to ensure party activities did not deviate from the ideological line set by Kim-Il sung, and worked to reveal anti-Party revisionists. He also put in place measures to ensure the Party's idealogical system was rigidly enforced among the media, writers and artists.[12]
During the late 1960s, Kim wrote a number of discourses on economics. He rallied against moves to make material incentive the primary force behind economic development, and toured the country giving guidance on technical restructuring occurring within industry at the time.[13]
Between 1967-1969, Kim turned his attention to the military. He believed bureaucrats within the Korean People's Army (KPA) were oppressing the Army's political organizations and distorting state orders. Kim decided these elements posed a threat to the WPK's control of the military. At the Fourth Plenary Meeting of the Fourth Party Committee of the KPA, he exposed certain officers believed to be responsible, who were subsequently expelled.[14]
During his early years in the Party Central Committee, Kim also oversaw activities of the Propaganda and Agitation Department, in which he worked to revolutionize the Korean fine arts. Artists were encouraged to create works new in content and form, produced by new systems and methods, and abandoning old traditions in the Korean arts.
Kim's theory was that film combined a number of artistic forms, and therefore the development of Korean cinema would in turn develop other artistic spheres. This began with film adaptations for Kim Il-sung's works written during World War II, beginning with Five Guerrilla Brothers in 1967. In the early 1970s, operatic adaptations of Kim Il-sung's works began.[15]
Kim was appointed vice-director of the Party Central Committee (PCC) in September 1970, and became an elected member of the PCC in October 1972. By 1973 he was made secretary.[16]
During the early 1970s, Kim worked to eliminate bureaucracy and encourage political activity amongst the people by Party officials. This included a policy forcing bureaucrats to work among workers at the next subordinate level for 20 days per month.[17]
In February 1974, Kim Jong-il was elected to the Political Committee of the PCC. By this time he had acquired the nicknames of "dear leader" and "intelligent leader", according to his official biography.[18]
That same year, Kim launched the Three-revolution Team Movement. Described as "a new method of guiding the revolution", the movement introduced teams which travelled around the country providing political, scientific and technical training through short courses. The expertise gained was continually developed through mass meetings in which knowledge could be shared.
Kim also led the shock-brigade movement of scientists and technicians - a similar initiative for new scientific research.[19]
During the late 1970s, Kim was involved in economic planning, including several campaigns to rapidly develop certain sectors of the economy.[20] He worked on initiatives to build mass political movements within the military, including the Three Revolution Red Flag Movement, Red Flag Company Movement and the Red Flag Vanguard Company Movement.[21]
He was also active in efforts to build a campaign for the reunification of Korea. This included assisting in the formation of the International Liaison Committee for the Independent and Peaceful Reunification of Korea in 1977, attending talks between political parties and groups within the DPRK, and taking part in high-level negotiations between the DPRK and Republic of Korea.[22]
Presidium member and party secretary (1980-1994)
By the time of the Sixth Party Congress in October 1980, Kim Jong-il's control of the Party operation was complete. He was given senior posts in the Politburo, the Military Commission and the party Secretariat. When he was made a member of the Seventh Supreme People's Assembly in February 1982, international observers deemed him the heir apparent of North Korea.
At this time Kim assumed the title "Dear Leader" (친애하는 지도자, ch'inaehanŭn chidoja)[23] the government began building a personality cult around him patterned after that of his father, the "Great Leader". Kim Jong-il was regularly hailed by the media as the "fearless leader" and "the great successor to the revolutionary cause". He emerged as the most powerful figure behind his father in North Korea.
On December 24, 1991, Kim was also named supreme commander of the North Korean armed forces. Since the Army is the real foundation of power in North Korea, this was a vital step. Defense Minister Oh Jin-wu, one of Kim Il-sung's most loyal subordinates, engineered Kim Jong-il's acceptance by the Army as the next leader of North Korea, despite his lack of military service. The only other possible leadership candidate, Prime Minister Kim Il (no relation), was removed from his posts in 1976. In 1992, Kim Il-sung publicly stated that his son was in charge of all internal affairs in the Democratic People's Republic.
In 1992, radio broadcasts started referring to him as the "Dear Father", instead of the "Dear Leader", suggesting a promotion. His 50th birthday was the occasion for massive celebrations, exceeded only by those for the 80th birthday of Kim Il Sung himself on April 15.
According to defector Hwang Jang-yop, the North Korean system became even more centralized and autocratic under Kim Jong-il than it had been under his father. Although Kim Il-sung required his ministers to be loyal to him, he nonetheless sought their advice in decision-making; Kim Jong-il demands absolute obedience and agreement, and views any deviation from his thinking as a sign of disloyalty. According to Hwang, Kim Jong-il personally directs even minor details of state affairs, such as the size of houses for party secretaries and the delivery of gifts to his subordinates.[24]
By the 1980s, North Korea began to experience severe economic stagnation. Kim Il-sung's policy of juche (self-reliance) cut the country off from almost all external trade, even with its traditional partners, the Soviet Union and China.
South Korea accused Kim of ordering the 1983 bombing in Rangoon, Burma (now Yangon, Myanmar), which killed 17 visiting South Korean officials, including four cabinet members, and another in 1987 which killed all 115 on board Korean Air Flight 858 [25]. A North Korean agent, Kim Hyon Hui, confessed to planting a bomb in the case of the second, saying the operation was ordered by Kim Jong-il personally [26].
In 1992, Kim Jong-il's voice was broadcast for the first and only time. During a military parade, he approached the microphone and said "Glory to the heroic soldiers of the People's Army!"
Ruler of North Korea
President Kim Il-sung died July 8, 1994, at age 82 of a heart attack. He was not replaced as President, and received the designation of "Eternal President", resting in the Kumsusan Memorial Palace in central Pyongyang. The active position has been abolished in deference to the memory of Kim Il-sung. Kim Jong-il officially took the titles of General Secretary of the Workers' Party of Korea and chairman of the National Defense Commission on October 8, 1997. In 1998, his Defense Commission position was declared to be "the highest post of the state", so Kim may be regarded as North Korea's head of state from that date. Since Kim is not the president, he is not constitutionally required to hold elections to confirm his legitimacy and has not done so.
Economic policies
North Korea's state-controlled economy struggled throughout the 1990s, primarily due to the loss of strategic trade arrangements with the USSR[27] and strained relations with China following China's normalization with South Korea in 1992.[28] In addition, North Korea experienced record-breaking floods (1995 and 1996) followed by several years of equally severe drought beginning in 1997.[29] This, compounded with only 18 percent arable land[30] and an inability to import the goods necessary to sustain industry,[31] led to an immense famine and left North Korea in economic shambles. Faced with a country in decay, Kim adopted a "Military-First" policy (선군정치, Sŏn'gun chŏngch'i) to strengthen the country and reinforce the regime.[32] On the national scale, this policy has produced a positive growth rate for the country since 1996, and the implementation of "landmark socialist-type market economic practices" in 2002 kept the North afloat despite a continued dependency on foreign aid for food.[33]
In the wake of the devastation of the 1990s, the government began formally approving some activity of small-scale bartering and trade. As observed by Daniel Sneider, associate director for research at Stanford's Asia-Pacific Research Center, this flirtation with capitalism is "fairly limited, but — especially compared to the past — there are now remarkable markets that create the semblance of a free market system."[34] In 2002, Kim Jong-il declared that "money should be capable of measuring the worth of all commodities."[35] These gestures toward economic reform mirror similar actions taken by China's Deng Xiaoping in the late 1980s and early 90s. During a rare visit in 2006, Kim expressed admiration for China's rapid economic progress.[36]
Foreign relations
In 1998, South Korean President Kim Dae-jung implemented the "Sunshine policy" (햇볕 정책, Haetpyŏt chŏngch'aek) to improve North-South relations and to allow South Korean companies to start projects in the North. Kim Jong-il announced plans to import and develop new technologies to develop North Korea's fledgling software industry. As a result of the new policy, the Kaesong Industrial Park was constructed in 2003 just north of the inter-Korean border, with the planned participation of 250 South Korean companies, employing 100,000 North Koreans, by 2007.[37] However, by March 2007, the Park contained only 21 companies - employing 12,000 North Korean workers.[38]
In 1994, North Korea and the United States signed an Agreed Framework which was designed to freeze and eventually dismantle the North's nuclear weapons program in exchange for aid in producing two power-generating nuclear reactors.[39] In 2002, Kim Jong-il's government admitted to having produced nuclear weapons since the 1994 agreement. Kim's regime argued the secret production was necessary for security purposes - citing the presence of United States owned nuclear weapons in South Korea and the new tensions with the U.S. under President George W. Bush.[40] On October 9, 2006, North Korea's Korean Central News Agency announced that it had successfully conducted an underground nuclear test.
Internal politics
North Korea remains silent on the issue of an appointed successor. South Korean media have suggested that he is grooming his son, Kim Jong-chul; however, Kim Yong Hyun, a political expert at the Institute for North Korean Studies at Seoul's Dongguk University, believes any appointee would be outside the family. "Even the North Korean establishment would not advocate a continuation of the family dynasty at this point."[41] His eldest son, Kim Jong-nam, was earlier believed to be the designated heir, but he appears to have fallen out of favor after being arrested at Narita International Airport in Narita, Japan, near Tokyo, in 2001 while traveling on a forged passport.[42]
Cult of personality
Critics maintain Kim Jong-il is the centre of an elaborate personality cult inherited from his father and founder of the DPRK, Kim Il-sung. Defectors have been quoted as saying that North Korean schools deify both father and son, teaching that they do not urinate or defecate like mortal humans.[43] He is often the centre of attention throughout ordinary life in the DPRK. His birthday is one of the most important public holidays in the country. On his 60th birthday (based on his official date of birth), mass celebrations occurred throughout the country.[44]
One point of view is that Kim Jong Il's cult of personality is solely out of respect for Kim Il-sung or out of fear of punishment for failure to pay homage.[45] Media and government sources from outside of North Korea generally tout this view,[46][47][48][49][50] while North Korean government sources claim that it is genuine hero worship.[51]
Personal life
There is no official information available about Kim Jong-il's marital history, but he is believed to have been officially married once, and that he has three mistresses:
* Kim married his first wife, Kim Young-suk, after being forced by his father to marry the daughter of a senior military official - the two have been estranged for some years. Kim has a daughter from this marriage, Kim Sul-song (born 1974).[52]
* Kim's first mistress, Song Hye-rim, was not officially recognized and after years of estrangement she is believed to have died in Moscow in the Central Clinical Hospital in 2002. They had one son, Kim Jong-nam (born 1971) who is Kim Jong-il's eldest son.
* His second mistress, Ko Young-hee, had taken over the role of First Lady until her death - reportedly of cancer - in 2004. They had two sons, Kim Jong-chul, in 1981, and Kim Jong-un (also "Jong Woon" or "Jong Woong"), in 1984.[52]
* Since Ko's death, Kim has been living with Kim Ok, his third mistress, who had served as his personal secretary since the 1980s.[53]
Like his father, Kim has a fear of flying, and has always traveled by private armored train for state visits to Russia and China. The BBC reported that Konstantin Pulikovsky, a Russian emissary who traveled with Kim across Russia by train, told reporters that Kim had live lobsters air-lifted to the train every day, which he ate with silver chopsticks - historically used in the Chinese Forbidden City in the belief that they would detect poison.[54][55]
Kim is said to be a fan of luxury cars and has been known for racing his cars at his palaces. Kim had spent $20,000,000 on importing 200 new Mercedes Benz S500 luxury sedans adding to North Korea's fleet of 7,000 Mercedes cars.[citation needed] Kim is said to be a huge film buff, owning a collection of more than 20,000 video tapes.[56] His reported favorites are the Friday the 13th, Rambo, James Bond, and Godzilla series, as well as Hong Kong action cinema, and any movie with Elizabeth Taylor.[57] He is the author of the book On the Art of the Cinema. In 1978, on Kim's orders, South Korean film director Shin Sang-ok and his actress wife Choi Eun-hee were kidnapped in order to build a North Korean film industry.[58] In 2006 he was involved in the production of the Juche-based movie Diary of a Girl Student – depicting the life of a girl whose parents are scientists – with a KCNA news report stating that Kim "improved its script and guided its production".[59]
Kim reportedly also enjoys basketball. Former United States Secretary of State Madeleine Albright ended her summit with Kim by presenting him with a basketball signed by NBA legend Michael Jordan.[60] Also an apparent golfer, North Korean state media reports that Kim routinely shoots three or four holes-in-one per round.[61] His official biography also claims Kim has composed six operas and enjoys staging elaborate musicals.[62] Kim also refers to himself as an Internet expert.[63]
Defectors claim that Kim has 17 different palaces and residences, including a private resort near Paektu Mountain, a seaside lodge in the city of Wonsan, and a palace complex northeast of Pyongyang surrounded with multiple fence lines, bunkers, and anti-aircraft batteries.[64]
Fictional portrayals
Kim Jong-il is a popular target for parody and satire in many countries, especially in the United States. A parody appears regularly in comedian Jay Leno's "Celebrity Jeopardy!" sketch on The Tonight Show with Jay Leno, where he often feuds with a characterized George W. Bush. Comedian David Letterman refers to him as "Lil Kim" or "Ment-Ally Ill", and comedian Stephen Colbert often parodies him on The Colbert Report. Most prominently among pop cultural portrayals, he is cast in the movie Team America: World Police as a James Bond-style supervillain with a musical number, "I'm So Ronery."
See also
* List of Korea-related topics
* North Korea
Notes and references
1. ^ http://www.korea-dpr.com/articles-ng/biography-kimjongil.htm
2. ^ Kim Jong Il - Short Biography. Pyongyang: Foreign Languages Press, 1998, p. 1.
3. ^ "Profile: Kim Jong-Il" BBC News. Ed. Steve Herrmann. 9 October 2006. Accessed 17 December 2007.
4. ^ "The Kims' North Korea", Asia Times, June 4, 2005.
5. ^ Kim Jong Il - Short Biography. Pyongyang: Foreign Languages Press, 1998, p. 5.
6. ^ Martin, Bradley K. (2004). Under the Loving Care of the Fatherly Leader, New York: St. Martin's Press. ISBN 0-312-32221-6
7. ^ Kim Jong Il - Short Biography. Pyongyang: Foreign Languages Press, 1998, p. 4.
8. ^ ibid, pp. 6-9.
9. ^ ibid, pp. 9-17
10. ^ "Kim is a baby rattling the sides of a cot", Guardian Unlimited, December 30, 2002.
11. ^ "Happy Birthday, Dear Leader - who's next in line?", Asia Times, February 14, 2004.
12. ^ Kim Jong Il - Short Biography. Pyongyang: Foreign Languages Press, 1998, pp. 18-23
13. ^ ibid, pp. 25-59
14. ^ ibid, pp. 24-25
15. ^ ibid, pp. 35-40
16. ^ ibid, p. 32
17. ^ ibid, p. 35
18. ^ ibid, p. 48
19. ^ ibid, pp. 61-66
20. ^ ibid, pp. 56-60
21. ^ ibid, p. 72
22. ^ ibid, pp. 72-75
23. ^ "North Korea's dear leader less dear", Fairfax Digital, November 19, 2004.
24. ^ Testimony of Hwang Jang-yop
25. ^ "North Korea: Nuclear Standoff", The Online NewsHour, PBS, October 19, 2006.
26. ^ "Fake ashes, very real North Korean sanctions", Asia Times Online, December 16, 2004.
27. ^ "Prospects for trade with an integrated Korean market", Agricultural Outlook, April, 1992.
28. ^ "Why South Korea Does Not Perceive China to be a Threat", China in Transition, April 18, 2003.
29. ^ "An Antidote to disinformation about North Korea", Global Research, December 28, 2005.
30. ^ "North Korea Agriculture", Federal Research Division of the Library of Congress, Retrieved March 11, 2007.
31. ^ "Other Industry - North Korean Targets" Federation of American Scientists, June 15, 2000.
32. ^ "North Korea’s Military Strategy", Parameters, US Army War College Quarterly, 2003.
33. ^ "Kim Jong-il's military-first policy a silver bullet", Asia Times Online, January 4, 2007.
34. ^ "North Korea's Capitalist Experiment", Council on Foreign Relations, June 8, 2006.
35. ^ "On North Korea's streets, pink and tangerine buses", Christian Science Monitor, June 2, 2005.
36. ^ "Inside North Korea: A Joint U.S.-Chinese Dialogue", United States Institute of Peace, January 2007.
37. ^ "Asan, KOLAND Permitted to Develop Kaesong Complex", The Korea Times, April 23, 2004.
38. ^ "S. Korea denies U.S. trade pact will exclude N. Korean industrial park", Yonhap News, March 7, 2007.
39. ^ "History of the 'Agreed Framework' and how it was broken", About: U.S. Gov Info/Resources, March 12, 2007.
40. ^ "Motivation Behind North Korea's Nuclear Confession", GLOCOM Platform, October 28, 2002.
41. ^ "North Korea silent over Kim Jong Il successor", India eNews, February 14, 2007.
42. ^ "Japan deports man claiming to be Kim Jong-Nam", ABC News:The World Today, May 4, 2001.
43. ^ Chol-hwan Kang and Pierre Rigoulot (2005). The Aquariums of Pyongyang: Ten Years in the North Korean Gulag, Basic Books. ISBN 0-465-01104-7
44. ^ BBC reporters. "North Korea marks leader's birthday", BBC News. Ed. Steve Herrmann. 16 February 2002. Accessed 18 December 2007.
45. ^ Alexandre Mansourov. "Korean Monarch Kim Jong Il: Technocrat Ruler of the Hermit Kingdom Facing the Challenge of Modernity" The Nautilus Institute. Accessed 18 December 2007.
46. ^ Charles Scanlon. "Nuclear deal fuels Kim's celebrations", BBC News. Ed. Steve Herrmann. 16 February 2007. Accessed 18 December 2007.
47. ^ Clifford Coonan. "Kim Jong Il, the tyrant with a passion for wine, women and the bomb", The Independent. Ed. Martin King. 21 October 2006. Accessed 18 December 2007.
48. ^ Richard Lloyd Parry. "'Dear Leader' clings to power while his people pay the price", Times Online. Ed. [online.editor@timesonline.co.uk]. 10 October 2006. Accessed 18 December 2007.
49. ^ Reuters reporters. "'North Korea's 'Dear Leader' flaunts nuclear prowess", New Zealand Herald. Ed. Tim Murphy. 10 October 2006. Accessed 18 December 2007.
50. ^ Compiled by the Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor. "Country Reports on Human Rights Practices" US Department of State. 25 February 2004. Accessed 18 December 2007
51. ^ Jason LaBouyer [http://www.korea-dpr.com/lodestar0605v.pdf "When friends become enemies - Understanding left-wing hostility to the DPRK" Lodestar. May/June 2005: pp. 7-9. Korea-DPR.com. Accessed on 18 December 2007.
52. ^ a b "The Kim family tree", Scripps News, February 2, 2007.
53. ^ "North Korea's New First Lady", All Headline News, June 23 2006.
54. ^ "Profile: Kim Jong-il", BBC News, July 31, 2003.
55. ^ Silver Chopsticks
56. ^ "North Korean leader loves Hennessey, Bond movies", CNN Washington, Jan. 8, 2003.
57. ^ "The Madness of Kim Jong Il", Guardian Unlimited, November 2, 2003.
58. ^ "Kidnapped by North Korea", BBC News, March 5, 2003.
59. ^ "Film 'Diary of a Girl Student', Close Companion of Life", Korea News Sercive, August 10, 2006.
60. ^ "The oddest fan", Union-Tribune, October 29, 2006.
61. ^ "Move over Tiger: N. Korea's Kim shot 38 under par his 1st time out", World Tribune, June 16, 2004.
62. ^ "Profile: Kim Jong-il", BBC News, June 9 2000.
63. ^ "North Korea Kim Jong Il an Internet Expert", FOX News, October 5 2007.
64. ^ "Kim Jong Il, Where He Sleeps and Where He Works", Daily NK, March 15, 2005.
Further reading
* Jasper Becker, "Rogue Regime: Kim John Il and the Looming Threat of North Korea", [1], Oxford University Press (October 2006), Softcover, 328 pages, ISBN 0-19-530891-3
* Michael Breen, Kim Jong-il: North Korea's Dear Leader, John Wiley and Sons (January, 2004), hardcover, 228 pages, ISBN 0-470-82131-0
* Bradley Martin, Under The Loving Care Of The Fatherly Leader: North Korea And The Kim Dynasty, St. Martins (October, 2004), hardcover, 868 pages, ISBN 0-312-32221-6
* Kim Chol U, Army-Centred Politics Of Kim Jong Il, Foreign Languages Publishing House, Pyongyang, North Korea, 2002, Softcover, 98 pages
* Kim Jong Il Brief History, Foreign Languages Publishing House, Pyongyang, North Korea, 1998, Hardcover, 149 pages
* Kim Jong Il Short Biography, Foreign Languages Publishing House, Pyongyang, North Korea, 2001, Hardcover, 215 pages
* Pae Kyong Su, Kim Jong Il The Individual Thoughts And Leadership Vol. 1, Foreign Languages Publishing House, Pyongyang, North Korea, 1993, Softcover, 225 pages
* Pae Kyong Su, Kim Jong Il The Individual Thoughts And Leadership Vol. 2, Foreign Languages Publishing House, Pyongyang, North Korea, 1995, Softcover, 164 pages
* Nada Takashi, Korea In Kim Jong Il's Era, Foreign Languages Publishing House, Pyongyang, North Korea, 2000, Softcover, 163 pages
* Li Il Bok, The Great Man Kim Jong Il, Foreign Languages Publishing House, Pyongyang, North Korea, 1989, Softcover, 167 pages
* Ri Il Bok, The Great Man Kim Jong Il Vol. 2, Foreign Languages Publishing House, Pyongyang, North Korea, 1995, Softcover, 84 pages
* Jo Song Baek, The Leadership Philosophy Of Kim Jong Il, Foreign Languages Publishing House, Pyongyang, North Korea, 1999, Softcover, 261 pages
* Guiding Light General Kim Jong Il, Foreign Languages Publishing House, Pyongyang, North Korea, 1997, Softcover, 357 pages
External links
Find more about Kim Jong-il on Wikipedia's sister projects:
Dictionary definitions
Textbooks
Quotations
Source texts
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News stories
Learning resources
* Kim Jong Il: Brief HistoryPDF (893 KiB) – Foreign Languages Publishing House, Pyongyang DPR Korea (1998)
* Born in the USSR – Kim Jong-il's childhood.
* The many family secrets of Kim Jong Il
* "Hidden Daughter" Visits Kim Jong-il Every Year (also includes photos of Kim during his youth)
* (Korean) Kim's family tree
Persondata
NAME Kim Jong-il
ALTERNATIVE NAMES Yuri Irsenovich Kim,
SHORT DESCRIPTION leader of Democratic People's Republic of Korea
DATE OF BIRTH February 16, 1941
PLACE OF BIRTH village of Vyatskoye, near Khabarovsk
DATE OF DEATH
PLACE OF DEATH
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kim_Jong-il"
Categories: Government of North Korea | North Korean politicians | Current national leaders | 1942 births | Living people | Korean communists
Hidden categories: Semi-protected | All articles with unsourced statements | Articles with unsourced statements since February 2008
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Robert Mugabe
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Semi-protected
"Mugabe" redirects here. For other uses, see Mugabe (disambiguation).
President Robert Gabriel Mugabe
Robert Mugabe
Mugabe at the African Union summit in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia on 31 January 2008.
President of Zimbabwe
Incumbent
Assumed office
31 December 1987
Vice President Joseph Msika
Joice Mujuru
Preceded by Canaan Banana
Prime Minister of Zimbabwe
In office
18 April 1980 – 31 December 1987
President Canaan Banana
Preceded by Abel Muzorewa (Zimbabwe Rhodesia)
Succeeded by Post abolished
Secretary General of Non-Aligned Movement
In office
06 September 1986 – 07 September 1989
Succeeded by Janez Drnovšek
Born 21 February 1924 (1924-02-21) (age 84)
Kutama, Salisbury, Southern Rhodesia
Political party ZANU-PF
Spouse Sally Hayfron (deceased)
Grace Marufu
Alma mater University of Fort Hare
University of London
University of South Africa
Religion Lapsed Catholic[citation needed]
Signature Robert Mugabe's signature
Robert Gabriel Mugabe (born February 21, 1924) is the President of Zimbabwe. He has served as the head of government since 1980, as Prime Minister from 1980 to 1987 and as the first executive President since 1987.[1] Since the run-off election of 2008 his legitimacy as president has been called into question; the G8 nations released a statement in July saying they "do not accept the legitimacy of a government that does not reflect the will of the Zimbabwean people".[2] Mugabe is an outspoken, controversial and polarizing figure. His relationship with the former colonial power, the United Kingdom, has been particularly contentious; he is characterized as a violent dictator in the British press (a view held in many other countries), and he in turn denounces the British establishment as inveterate colonialists.
He rose to prominence in the 1960s as the Secretary general of the Zimbabwe African National Union (ZANU). For many years in the 60s and 70s Mugabe was a political prisoner in Rhodesia. His goal was to replace white minority-rule with a one-party Marxist regime.[3] He left Rhodesia in 1976 to join the Zimbabwe Liberation Struggle (Rhodesian Bush War) from bases in Mozambique. The war ended in 1979, emerging from this conflict, Mugabe was hailed by Africans as a hero.[4][5] He won the general elections of 1980, the first in which the majority black Africans participated, amid reports of violent intimidation by the militant freedom fighters he now controlled. Mugabe then became the first Prime Minister of black-ruled Zimbabwe after calling for reconciliation between formerly warring parties, including the white people as well as rival parties.
The early years of Mugabe's rule saw killings targeting the Ndebele tribe in the Matabeleland and Midlands areas of Zimbabwe. Since 1998 Mugabe's policies have increasingly elicited domestic and international denunciation. His government pursued a costly intervention in the Second Congo War, expropriated thousands of white-owned farms, printed hundreds of trillions of Zimbabwean dollars triggering hyperinflation,[6] and has been accused of harassing and intimidating political opponents, particularly members of the Movement for Democratic Change.[7] Zimbabwe's economy spiraled downward,[8] with food and oil shortages,[9] and with massive internal displacement[10] and emigration.[11] During this period Mugabe's policies have been denounced in the West and at home as racist against Zimbabwe's white minority.[12][13][14] Mugabe has described his critics as "born again colonialists",[15][16] and both he and his supporters claim Zimbabwe's problems are the legacy of imperialism,[17] aggravated by Western economic meddling.
Mugabe lost the first round of the 2008 election to opposition leader Morgan Tsvangirai, 43% to 48%, though neither candidate secured the 50% necessary to avoid a runoff election. The MDC claimed that the official results had been altered to force a run-off vote, since their returns suggested that Tsvangirai had received 50.3% of the vote.[18]
Contents
[hide]
* 1 Early life
* 2 Early political career
* 3 Lancaster House Agreement
* 4 Prime Minister and President
o 4.1 Gukurahundi
o 4.2 Social programs
o 4.3 Alleged racism
o 4.4 Views on homosexuality
o 4.5 Second Congo War
o 4.6 Land reform
o 4.7 Elections
+ 4.7.1 General elections 2008
# 4.7.1.1 First-round defeat and the campaign of violence
# 4.7.1.2 The outcome of the run-off election
o 4.8 Criticism and opposition
o 4.9 Bans on travel in the E.U. and the U.S.A.
+ 4.9.1 Appearance at the FAO conference, June 2008
o 4.10 Succession
* 5 Honours and revocations
* 6 Personal life
* 7 In fiction
* 8 References
o 8.1 Notes
o 8.2 Bibliography
* 9 External links
Early life
Mugabe was born in Matibiri village near Kutama Mission in the Zvimba District north east of Salisbury in Southern Rhodesia. He had two older brothers, and one of them, Michael, was very popular in the village. Both his older brothers died, leaving Robert and his younger brother, Donato.[19] His father, Gabriel Mugabe Matibiri, a carpenter,[8] abandoned the Mugabe family in 1934 after Michael died, in search of work in Bulawayo.[20] Mugabe was raised as a Roman Catholic, studying in Marist Brothers and Jesuit schools, including the exclusive Kutama College, headed by an Irish priest, Father Jerome O'Hea, who took him under his wing. Through his youth, Mugabe was never socially popular nor physically active and spent most of his time with the priests or his mother when he was not reading in the school's libraries. He was described as never playing with the other children but always enjoying his own company[8]. He qualified as a teacher, but left to study at Fort Hare in South Africa graduating in 1951 while meeting contemporaries such as Julius Nyerere, Herbert Chitepo, Robert Sobukwe and Kenneth Kaunda. He then studied at Oxford University in 1952, Salisbury (1953), Gwelo (1954), and Tanzania (1955–1957).
Originally graduating with a Bachelor of Arts degree from the University of Fort Hare in 1951, Mugabe subsequently earned six further degrees through distance learning including a Bachelor of Administration and Bachelor of Education from the University of South Africa and a Bachelor of Science, Bachelor of Laws, Master of Science and Master of Laws, all from the University of London External Programme.[21] The two Law degrees were taken whilst he was in prison, whilst the Master of Science degree was taken during his premiership of Zimbabwe.[22]
After graduating, Mugabe lectured at Chalimbana Teacher Training College, in Zambia from 1955–1958, thereafter he taught at Apowa Secondary School at Takoradi, in the Western Region of Ghana (1958 – 1960) where he met Sally Hayfron, who later became his first wife. During his stay in Ghana, he was influenced and inspired by Ghana's then-Prime Minister, Kwame Nkrumah. In addition, Mugabe and some of his Zimbabwe African National Union party cadres received instruction at the Kwame Nkrumah Ideological Institute, then at Winneba in southern Ghana.[23][24]
Early political career
Main article: History of Zimbabwe
Mugabe returned to Southern Rhodesia and joined the National Democratic Party (NDP) in 1960.[25] The administration of Prime Minister Ian Smith banned the NDP when it later became Joshua Nkomo's Zimbabwe African Peoples Union (ZAPU). Mugabe left ZAPU in 1963 to join the rival Zimbabwe African National Union (ZANU) which had been formed in 1963 by the Reverend Ndabaningi Sithole, Edgar Tekere, Edson Zvobgo, Enos Nkala and lawyer Herbert Chitepo. ZANU was influenced by the Africanist ideas of the Pan Africanist Congress in South Africa[26] and influenced by Maoism while ZAPU was an ally of the African National Congress and was a supporter of a more orthodox pro-Soviet line on national liberation. Similar divisions can also be seen in the liberation movement in Angola between the MPLA and UNITA. It would have been easy for the party to split along tribal lines between the Ndebele and Mugabe's own Shona tribe, but cross-tribal representation was maintained by his partners. ZANU leader Sithole nominated Robert Mugabe as his Secretary General.
In 1964 Mugabe was arrested for “subversive speech” and spent the next 10 years in Salisbury prison, which helps to explain why his hatred of European hegemony in Africa is so strong. During that period he earned three degrees, including a law degree from London and a bachelor of administration from the University of South Africa by correspondence courses. Smith did not allow Mugabe out of prison to attend the funeral of Mugabe's three-year-old son.[8] In 1974, while still in prison, Mugabe was elected -- with the powerful influence of Edgar Tekere -- to take over the reins of ZANU after a no-confidence vote was passed on Ndabaningi Sithole[27] - Mugabe himself abstained from voting. His time in prison burnished his reputation and helped his cause.[8]
Mugabe unilaterally assumed control of ZANU from Mozambique. Later that year, after squabbling with Ndabaningi Sithole, Mugabe formed a militant ZANU faction, leaving Sithole to lead the moderate Zanu (Ndonga) party. Many opposition leaders mysteriously died during this time, including one who allegedly died in a car crash although the car is rumored to have been found riddled with bullet holes.[8] Additionally, an opposing newspaper's printing press was bombed and its journalists tortured.[8]
Lancaster House Agreement
Main article: Lancaster House Agreement
Persuasion from B.J. Vorster, himself under pressure from Henry Kissinger, forced Ian Smith, the sitting prime minister at the time, to accept in principle that white minority rule could not continue indefinitely. On March 3, 1978 Bishop Abel Muzorewa, Ndabaningi Sithole and other moderate leaders signed an agreement at the Governor's Lodge in Salisbury, which paved the way for an interim power-sharing government, in preparation for elections. The elections were won by the United African National Council under Bishop Abel Muzorewa, but international recognition did not follow and sanctions were not lifted. The two 'Patriotic Front' groups under Mugabe and Joshua Nkomo refused to participate and continued the war.
The incoming government did accept an invitation to talks at Lancaster House in September 1979. A ceasefire was negotiated for the talks, which were attended by Smith, Mugabe, Nkomo, Edson Zvobgo and others. Eventually the parties to the talks agreed on a new constitution for a new Republic of Zimbabwe with elections in February 1980. The Lancaster Agreement saw Mugabe make two important and contentious concessions. First, he allowed 20 seats to be reserved for whites in the new Parliament, and second, he agreed to a ten year moratorium on constitutional amendments. His return to Zimbabwe in December 1979, following the completion of the Lancaster House Agreement, was greeted with enormous supportive crowds.
Prime Minister and President
After a campaign marked by intimidation from all sides, mistrust from security forces and reports of full ballot boxes found on the road, the Shona majority was decisive in electing Mugabe to head the first government as prime minister on 4 March 1980. ZANU won 57 out of 80 Common Roll seats in the new parliament, with the 20 white seats all going to the Rhodesian Front.
Mugabe, whose political support came from his Shona-speaking homeland in the north, attempted to build Zimbabwe on a basis of an uneasy coalition with his Zimbabwe African People's Union (ZAPU) rivals, whose support came from the Ndebele-speaking south, and with the white minority. Mugabe sought to incorporate ZAPU into his Zimbabwe African National Union (ZANU) led government and ZAPU's military wing into the army. ZAPU's leader, Joshua Nkomo, was given a series of cabinet positions in Mugabe's government. However, Mugabe was torn between this objective and pressures to meet the expectations of his own ZANU followers for a faster pace of social change.
In 1983, Mugabe fired Nkomo from his cabinet, triggering bitter fighting between ZAPU supporters in the Ndebele-speaking region of the country and the ruling ZANU. Mugabe accused the Ndebele tribe of plotting to overthrow him after sacking Nkomo. Between 1982 and 1985, the military crushed armed resistance from Ndebele groups in the provinces of Matabeleland and the Midlands, leaving Mugabe's rule secure. Mugabe has been accused by the BBC's Panorama programme of committing mass murder during this period of his rule.[28] A peace accord was negotiated in 1987.[29] ZAPU merged into the Zimbabwe African National Union-Patriotic Front (ZANU-PF) on December 22, 1988.[30] Mugabe brought Nkomo into the government once again as a vice-president.
In 1987, the position of Prime Minister was abolished and Mugabe assumed the new office of executive President of Zimbabwe gaining additional powers in the process. He was re-elected in 1990 and 1996, and in 2002 amid claims of widespread vote-rigging and intimidation. Mugabe's term of office expired at the end of March 2008.
Mugabe has been the Chancellor of the University of Zimbabwe since Parliament passed the University of Zimbabwe Amendment Bill in November 1990.[31]
Gukurahundi
Main article: Gukurahundi
More than 20,000 Ndebele civilians were killed by Mugabe's North-Korean trained 5th Brigade during the Gukurahundi (“the early rain that washes away the chaff”)[8] ethnic massacres.[32][33]Their leader was Perence Shiri who called himself 'Black Jesus'.[34] Mugabe is said to fear prosecution for this massacre, with bills calling for inquiries into the incident sometimes introduced into Parliament.[8] The opposition Movement for Democratic Change has said that if it comes to power, it will call for an international trial of the massacre.[8] Most of the 20,000 killed were innocent civilians.[35]
Social programs
According to a 1995 World Bank report, after independence, "Zimbabwe gave priority to human resource investments and support for smallholder agriculture," and as a result, "smallholder agriculture expanded rapidly during the first half of the 1980s and social indicators improved quickly." From 1980 to 1990 infant mortality decreased from 86 to 49 per 1000 live births, under five mortality was reduced from 128 to 58 per 1000 live births, and immunisation increased from 25% to 80% of the population. Also, "child malnutrition fell from 22% to 12% and life expectancy increased from 56 to 64. By 1990, Zimbabwe had a lower infant mortality rate, higher adult literacy and higher school enrollment rate than average for developing countries".[36]
In 1991, the government of Zimbabwe, short on hard currency and under international pressure, embarked on an austerity program. The World Bank's 1995 report explained that such reforms were required because Zimbabwe was unable to absorb into its labour market the many graduates from its impressive education system and that it needed to attract additional foreign investments. The reforms, however, undermined the livelihoods of Zimbabwe's poor majority; the report noted "large segments of the population, including most smallholder farmers and small scale enterprises, find themselves in a vulnerable position with limited capacity to respond to evolving market opportunities. This is due to their limited access to natural, technical and financial resources, to the contraction of many public services for smallholder agriculture, and to their still nascent links with larger scale enterprises."
Moreover, these people were forced to live on marginal lands as Zimbabwe's best lands were reserved for mainly white landlords growing cash crops for export, a sector of the economy favoured by the IMF's plan. For the poor on the communal lands, "existing levels of production in these areas are now threatened by the environmental fragility of the natural resource base and the unsustainability of existing farming practices".[36] The International Monetary Fund later suspended aid, saying reforms were "not on track."
According to the World Health Organisation (WHO), life expectancy at birth for Zimbabwean men is 37 years and is 34 years for women, the lowest such figures for any nation.[37] The World Bank's 1995 report predicted this decline in life expectancy from its 1990 height of 64 years when, commenting on health care system cuts mandated by the IMF structural adjustment programme, it stated that "The decline in resources is creating strains and threatening the sustainability of health sector achievements".[36]
The Zimbabwe dollar suffers from the highest Inflation rate of any currency in the world. Zimbabwe official statistics reveal that the annualised inflation rate for September 2006 was 1000%. The International Monetary Fund (IMF), in its World Economic Outlook database, reported inflation in 2006 at 1216%.[38] Inflation reached 9,000% on June 21, 2007,[39] and 11,000% on June 22, 2007.[40] It continues to climb rapidly, and was reported to exceed 100,000% as of April 2008,[41] and estimated to be 4,000,000% in June 2008. It is now estimated to reach 100,000,000 by September 2008.[42]
While Zimbabwe has suffered in many other measures under Mugabe, as a former schoolteacher he has been well-known for his commitment to education.[8] However, Catholic Archbishop of Zimbabwe Pius Ncube decried the educational situation in the country, saying, among other scathing indictments of Mugabe, "We had the best education in Africa and now our schools are closing".[43]
Alleged racism
A number of people have accused Mugabe of having racist attitude towards white people. John Sentamu, a Uganda-born Archbishop of York in the United Kingdom, calls Mugabe "the worst kind of racist dictator," for having "targeted the whites for their apparent riches".[44] Almost thirty years after ending white-minority rule in Zimbabwe, Mugabe accuses the United Kingdom of promoting white imperialism and regularly accuses opposition figures to his government of being allies of white imperialism.
Views on homosexuality
Mugabe has waged a violent campaign against homosexuals, arguing that before colonisation Zimbabweans did not engage in homosexual acts.[45] His first major public condemnation of homosexuality came in 1995 during the Zimbabwe International Book Fair in August 1995.[46] He told the audience that homosexuality:
"...Degrades human dignity. It's unnatural and there is no question ever of allowing these people to behave worse than dogs and pigs. If dogs and pigs do not do it, why must human beings? We have our own culture, and we must re-dedicate ourselves to our traditional values that make us human beings... What we are being persuaded to accept is sub-animal behaviour and we will never allow it here. If you see people parading themselves as lesbians and gays, arrest them and hand them over to the police!"[47]
In September 1995, Zimbabwe's parliament introduced legislation banning homosexual acts.[46] In 1997, a court found Canaan Banana, Mugabe's predecessor and the first President of Zimbabwe, guilty of 11 counts of sodomy and indecent assault.[48] Banana's trial proved embarrassing for Mugabe, when Banana's accusers alleged that Mugabe knew about Banana's conduct and had done nothing to stop it.[49]
Second Congo War
Mugabe was blamed for Zimbabwe's participation in the Second Congo War in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. At a time when the Zimbabwean economy was struggling, Zimbabwe responded to a call by the Southern African Development Community to help the struggling regime in Kinshasa. The Democratic Republic of the Congo had been invaded by Rwanda and Uganda, both of which claimed that their civilians, and regional stability, were under constant threat of attack by various terrorist groups based in the Congo.[50] However, the Congolese government, as well as international commentators, charged that the motive for the invasion was to grab the rich mineral resources of eastern Congo.[51][52] The war raised accusations of corruption, with officials alleged to be plundering the Congo's mineral reserves. Mugabe's defence minister Moven Mahachi said, "Instead of our army in the DRC burdening the treasury for more resources, which are not available, it embarks on viable projects for the sake of generating the necessary revenue".[53]
Land reform
Main article: Land reform in Zimbabwe
When Zimbabwe gained independence, 46.5% of the country's arable land was owned by around 6,000 commercial farmers.[54] Mugabe accepted a "willing buyer, willing seller" plan as part of the Lancaster House Agreement of 1979, among other concessions to the white minority.[55] As part of this agreement, land redistribution was blocked for a period of 10 years.[56]
In 1997, the new British government led by Tony Blair unilaterally stopped funding the "willing buyer, willing seller" land reform programme on the basis that the initial £44 million allocated under the Thatcher government was used to purchase land for members of the ruling elite rather than landless peasants. Furthermore, Britain's ruling Labour Party felt no obligation to continue paying white farmers compensation, or in minister Clare Short's words, "I should make it clear that we do not accept that Britain has a special responsibility to meet the costs of land purchase in Zimbabwe. We are a new Government from diverse backgrounds without links to former colonial interests. My own origins are Irish and as you know we were colonised not colonisers".[57]
Some commentators, such as Matthew Sweet in The Independent, hold Cecil Rhodes ultimately responsible:
... It was Cecil Rhodes who originated the racist 'land grabs' to which Zimbabwe's current miseries can ultimately be traced. It was Rhodes who in 1887 told the House Of Assembly in Capetown, South Africa that 'the native is to be treated as a child and denied the franchise. We must adopt a system on despotism in our relations with the barbarians of Southern Africa'.[58]
According to Sweet, "In less oratorical moments, he put it even more bluntly: 'I prefer land to niggers.'"
From February 12 to 13, 2000, a referendum was held on constitutional amendments. The proposed amendments would have limited future presidents to two terms, but as it was not retroactive, Mugabe could have stood for another two terms. It also would have made his government and military officials immune from prosecution for any illegal acts committed while in office. In addition, it allowed the government to confiscate white-owned land for redistribution to black farmers without compensation. The motion failed with 55% of participants against the referendum.[59] The referendum had a 20% turnout fuelled by an effective SMS campaign. Mugabe declared that he would "abide by the will of the people". The vote was a surprise to ZANU-PF, and an embarrassment before parliamentary elections due in mid-April. Almost immediately, self-styled "war veterans", led by Chenjerai 'Hitler' Hunzvi, began invading white-owned farms. Those who did not leave voluntarily were often tortured and sometimes killed. One was forced to drink diesel fuel as a form of torture.[60] On April 6, 2000, Parliament pushed through an amendment, taken word for word from the draft constitution that was rejected by voters, allowing the seizure of white-owned farmlands without due reimbursement or payment.[61]
Since these actions, agricultural production has plummeted and the economy is crippled. Once the "bread basket" of southern Africa and a major agricultural exporter, Zimbabwe now depends on food programs and support from outside to feed its population.[62] A third of the population depends on food supplies from the World Food Programme to avoid starvation.[62]
On December 8, 2003, in protest against a further 18 months of suspension from the Commonwealth of Nations (thereby cutting foreign aid to Zimbabwe), Mugabe withdrew his country from the Commonwealth. Mugabe informed the leaders of Jamaica, Nigeria and South Africa of his decision when they telephoned him to discuss the situation. Zimbabwe's government said the President did not accept the Commonwealth's position, and was leaving the group.[63]
The United Nations provoked anger when its Food and Agriculture Organisation invited Mugabe to speak at a celebration of its 60th anniversary in Rome. Critics of the move argued that since Mugabe could not feed his own people without the UN's support, he was an inappropriate speaker for the group, which has a mission statement of "helping to build a world without hunger".[62]
In 2005, Mugabe ordered a raid conducted on what the government termed "illegal shelters" in Harare, resulting in 10,000 urban poor being left homeless from "Operation Murambatsvina (English: Operation Drive Out the Rubbish)." The authorities themselves had moved the poor inhabitants to the area in 1992, telling them not to build permanent homes and that their new homes were temporary, leading the inhabitants to build their own temporary shelters out of cardboard and wood.[64] Since the inhabitants of the shantytowns overwhelmingly supported the Movement for Democratic Change opposition party in the previous election, many alleged that the mass bulldozing was politically motivated.[64] The UK's Daily Telegraph noted that Mugabe's "latest palace," in the style of a pagoda, was located a mile from the destroyed shelters.[64] The UN released a report stating that the actions of Mugabe resulted in the loss of home or livelihood for more than 700,000 Zimbabweans and negatively affected 2.4 million more.[62]
As of September 2006, Mugabe's family owns three farms: Highfield Estate in Norton, 45 km west of Harare, Iron Mask Estate in Mazowe, about 40 km from Harare, and Foyle Farm in Mazowe, formerly owned by Ian Webster and adjacent to Iron Mask Farm, renamed to Gushungo Farm after Mugabe's own clan name.[65] These farms were seized forcibly from their previous owners.[66]
Mugabe blames the food shortages on drought.[62] Zimbabwe's state-owned press accused former British Prime Minister Tony Blair of using chemical weapons to incite droughts and famines in Africa.[62]
Elections
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In April 1979, 64% of the black citizens of Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe) lined up at the polls to vote in the first democratic election in the history of that southern African nation. Two-thirds of them supported Abel Muzorewa, a bishop in the United Methodist Church. He was the first black prime minister of a country only 4% white. Muzorewa's victory put an end to the 14-year political odyssey of outgoing prime minister Ian Smith, the stubborn World War II veteran who had infamously announced in 1976, "I do not believe in black majority rule--not in a thousand years."
Less than a year after Muzorewa's victory, however, in February 1980, another election was held in Zimbabwe. This time, Robert Mugabe, the Marxist who had fought a seven-year guerilla war against Rhodesia's white-led government, won 64% of the vote, after a campaign marked by widespread intimidation, outright violence, and Mugabe's threat to continue the civil war if he lost. Mugabe became prime minister and was toasted by the international community and media as a new sort of African leader.
Mugabe has continued to win elections, although frequently these have been criticised by outsiders for violating various electoral procedures.
Mugabe faced Morgan Tsvangirai of the Movement for Democratic Change (MDC) in presidential elections in March 2002.[67] Mugabe defeated Tsvangirai by 56.2% to 41.9% amid violence and the prevention of large numbers of citizens in urban areas from voting. The conduct of the elections was widely viewed internationally as having been manipulated.[68][69] Many groups, such as the United States, the European Union, the United Kingdom, and Morgan Tsvangirai's Movement for Democratic Change (MDC), assert that the result was rigged.[67]
On July 3, 2004, a report adopted by the African Union executive council, which comprises foreign ministers of the 53 member states, criticized the government for the arrest and torture of opposition members of parliament and human rights lawyers, the arrest of journalists, the stifling of freedom of expression and clampdowns on other civil liberties. It was compiled by the AU's African Commission on Human and Peoples' Rights, which sent a mission to Zimbabwe from June 24 to 28 2002, shortly after the presidential elections. The report was apparently not submitted to the AU's 2003 summit because it had not been translated into French. It was adopted at the next AU summit in 2005.[70]
Mugabe's ZANU-PF party won the 2005 parliamentary elections with an increased majority. The elections were said by (again) South African observers to "reflect the free will of the people of Zimbabwe", despite accusations of widespread fraud from the MDC.[71]
On February 6, 2007, Mugabe orchestrated a cabinet reshuffle, ousting ministers including five-year veteran finance minister Herbert Murerwa.[72]
On March 11, 2007, opposition leader Morgan Tsvangirai was arrested and beaten following a prayer meeting in the Harare suburb of Highfields. Another member of the Movement for Democratic Change was killed while other protesters were injured.[73] Mugabe claimed that "Tsvangirai deserved his beating-up by police because he was not allowed to attend a banned rally" on March 30 2007.[74]
General elections 2008
Main article: Zimbabwean presidential election, 2008
Mugabe launched his election campaign on his birthday in Beitbridge, a small town on the border with South Africa on 23 February 2008 by denouncing both the opposition MDC and Simba Makoni's candidacy. He was quoted in the state media as saying: "Dr Makoni lacked majority support while Mr Tsvangirai was in the presidential race simply to please his Western backers in exchange for money".[75] These are the charges he has used in the past to describe the leader of the opposition.[citation needed]
In the week Dr. Makoni launched his campaign for the presidency, he accused Mugabe of buying votes from the electorate. This was a few hours after Dumiso Dabengwa had come out and endorsed Dr. Makoni's candidature.[76]
First-round defeat and the campaign of violence
The presidential elections were conducted on March 29, 2008, together with the parliamentary elections. On April 2, 2008, the Zimbabwe Election Commission confirmed Mugabe and his party, known as ZANU-PF, lost control of Parliament to the main opposition party, the Movement for Democratic Change. This was confirmed when the results were released.[77] Both the opposition and his party challenged the results in some constituencies.[78] According to unofficial polling, Zanu-PF took 94 seats, and the main opposition party MDC took 96 seats.[79] On 3 April 2008 Zimbabwean government forces began cracking down on the main opposition party and arresting at least two foreign journalists covering the disputed presidential election, including a correspondent for The New York Times.[80][81]
On March 30, 2008, Mugabe convened a meeting with his top security officials to discuss his defeat in the elections. According to Washington Post, he was prepared to concede, but was advised by Zimbabwe's military chief Gen. Constantine Chiwenga to remain in the race, with the senior military officers "supervising a military-style campaign against the opposition".[82] The first phase of the plan started a week later, involving the building of 2,000 party compounds across Zimbabwe, to serve as bases for the party militias.[82] On an April 8, 2008 meeting, the military plan was given the code name of "CIBD", which stood for: "Coercion. Intimidation. Beating. Displacement."[82]
The official results for the presidential elections would be delayed for five weeks. When British Prime Minister Gordon Brown attempted to intervene into the election controversy, Mugabe dismissed him as "a little tiny dot on this planet".[83]
When the official results for the presidential elections were finally published by the Zimbabwe election commission on 2 May, 2008, they showed that Mr. Mugabe had lost in the first round, getting 1,079,730 votes (43.2%) against 1,195,562 (47.9%) collected by Mr. Tsvangirai. Therefore no candidate secured the final win in the first round, and a presidential run-off will be needed. The opposition called the results "scandalous daylight robbery", claiming an outright victory in the first round with 50.3% of the votes.[84]
Mugabe's run-off campaign was managed by Emerson Mnangagwa, a former security chief of the conflict of Gukurahundi.[82] The Washington Post asserts that the campaign of violence was bringing results to the ruling party, by crushing the opposition party MDC and coercion of its supporters. By June 20, 2008, the Zimbabwe Association of Doctors for Human Rights had "recorded 85 deaths in political violence since the first round of voting".[85] News organizations report that, by the date of the second-round election, more than 80 opposition supporters had been killed, hundreds more were missing, in addition to thousands injured, and hundreds of thousands driven from their homes.[82]
Zimbabwean officials alleged that activists of the MDC, disguised as ZANU-PF members, had perpetrated violence against the population, mimicking the tactics of the Selous Scouts during the liberation struggle. They alleged that there was a "predominance" of Selous Scouts in the MDC.[86] The Sunday Mail published an article which claims that former Selous Scouts are training MDC youth activists in violent tactics, at locations near Tswane (Pretoria) and Pietermaritzburg in South Africa.[87]
In addition, at least 100 officials and polling officers of the Zimbabwe Electoral Commission have been arrested after the first round election. [88] [89]
Morgan Tsvangirai initially agreed to a presidential run-off with Robert Mugabe,[90] but later withdrew (on June 22, 2008), citing violence targeted at his campaign. He complained that the elections were pointless, as the outcome would be determined by Mugabe himself.[91]
The outcome of the run-off election
The run-off election was held on 27 June 2008, and Zimbabwe’s Electoral Commission released the results two days later. The official results showed that Mugabe had managed to double his votes since the first round, to 2,150,269 votes (85.5%), while his opponent Tsvangirai obtained only 233,000 (9.3%).[92] However Tsvangirai had pulled out previously because of widespread violence from the Zanu Pf's forces. The violence includes beating, rape and others. Many voted because if they didn't they could face violence against them. Although witnesses and election monitors had reported a low turnout in many areas of the country,[93] the official tally showed that the total vote had increased, from 2,497,265 votes in the first round[94] to 2,514,750 votes in the second round.[95]
Two legal opinions commissioned by the Southern African Litigation Centre (SALC) [96] declared the run-off election illegal because it occurred outside the 21 day period within which it had to take place under Zimbabwean law. Under item 3(1)(b) of the Second Schedule of the Electoral Act, if no second election is held within 21 days of the first election, the candidate with the highest number of votes in the first election has been duly elected as President and must be declared as such. According to the figures released by Zimbabwe’s Electoral Commission, that would mean that Morgan Tsvangirai is the de jure President.
Mugabe's inauguration to his sixth presidential term of office was a hastily arranged ceremony, convened barely an hour after the electoral commission declared his victory on 29 June 2008.[97] None of his fellow African heads of state were present at his inauguration; there were only family members, ministers, and security chiefs in the guests' tent.[98]
The Zimbabwean military, and not President Robert Mugabe, is now running the troubled country, in the opinion of a South Africa-based NGO called the Zimbabwe Solidarity Forum (ZSF) - 10 Jul 2008.[99]
The United Kingdom announced a policy of seizing foreign assets belonging to Mugabe. Mugabe replied that he has no foreign assets to seize. The British government proceeded to seize the bank account of Sam Mugabe, a 23-year old British subject of Zimbabwean origin, no relation to Robert Mugabe. The HSBC bank which carried out the seizure of her account subsequently apologized.[100][101][102]
Criticism and opposition
Example of foreign criticism: a demonstration against Mugabe's regime next to the Zimbabwe embassy in London (Summer 2006).
Example of foreign criticism: a demonstration against Mugabe's regime next to the Zimbabwe embassy in London (Summer 2006).
Since 1998 Mugabe's policies have increasingly elicited domestic and international denunciation. They have been denounced as racist against Zimbabwe's white minority[12][13][14] Mugabe has described his critics as "born again colonialists",[103][16] and both he and his supporters claim that Zimbabwe's problems are the legacy of imperialism,[104] aggravated by Western economic meddling. The loudest and most persistent criticism of Mugabe comes from the United Kingdom[citation needed], which, according to The Herald, a Zimbabwean newspaper owned by the government, is pursuing a policy of regime change.[105]
Mugabe's critics accuse him of conducting a "reign of terror"[64][106] and being an 'extremely poor role model' for the continent, whose 'transgressions' are 'unpardonable'.[107] In solidarity with the April 2007 general strike called by the Zimbabwe Congress of Trade Unions (ZCTU), British Trades Union Congress General Secretary Brendan Barber said of Mugabe's regime: 'Zimbabwe's people are suffering from Mugabe's appalling economic mismanagement, corruption and brutal repression. They are standing up for their rights, and we must stand with them." Lela Kogbara, Chair of ACTSA (Action for Southern Africa) similarly has said: "As with every oppressive regime women and workers are left bearing the brunt. Please join us as we stand in solidarity with the people of Zimbabwe in their struggle for peace, justice and freedom".[108]
Robert Guest, the Africa editor for The Economist for seven years, argues that Mugabe is to blame for Zimbabwe's economic freefall. "In 1980, the average annual income in Zimbabwe was US$950, and a Zimbabwean dollar was worth more than an American one. By 2003, the average income was less than US$400, and the Zimbabwean economy was in freefall.[109] "[Mugabe] has ruled Zimbabwe for nearly three decades and has led it, in that time, from impressive success to the most dramatic peacetime collapse of any country since Weimar Germany".[8]
In the The Daily Telegraph of London, Mugabe was criticised for comparing himself to Hitler. Mugabe was quoted as saying "This Hitler has only one objective: justice for his people, sovereignty for his people, recognition of the independence of his people and their rights over their resources. If that is Hitler, then let me be a Hitler tenfold".[110]
In recent years, Western governments have condemned Mugabe's government. On 9 March 2003, U.S. President George W. Bush approved measures for economic sanctions to be leveled against Mugabe and other high-ranking Zimbabwe politicians, freezing their assets and barring Americans from engaging in any transactions or dealings with them. Justifying the move, Bush's spokesman stated that the President and Congress believe that "the situation in Zimbabwe endangers the southern African region and threatens to undermine efforts to foster good governance and respect for the rule of law throughout the continent." The bill was known as the Zimbabwe Democracy Act.[111]
In reaction to human rights violations in Zimbabwe, students at universities from which Mugabe has honorary doctorates have sought to get the degrees revoked. So far, the University of Edinburgh and University of Massachusetts have stripped Mugabe of his honorary degree[112] after two years of campaigning from their Edinburgh University Students' Association student union. In addition, the student body at Michigan State University (ASMSU) unanimously passed a resolution calling for this. The issue is now being considered by the university.[113]
Mugabe's office forbade the screening of the 2005 movie The Interpreter, claiming that it was propaganda by the CIA and fearing that it could incite hostility towards him.[114] In 2007, Parade magazine ranked Mugabe the 7th worst dictator in the world.[115]
An official from Chatham House suggested that Mugabe was unlikely to leave Zimbabwe, but that if he were to leave, he might go to Malaysia, where some believe that he has "stashed much of his wealth".[116]
In response to Mugabe's critics, former Zambian leader Kenneth Kaunda was quoted blaming not Mugabe for Zimbabwe's troubles, but successive British governments.[117] He wrote in June 2007 that "leaders in the West say Robert Mugabe is a demon, that he has destroyed Zimbabwe and he must be got rid of – but this demonising is made by people who may not understand what Robert Gabriel Mugabe and his fellow freedom fighters went through".[4] Similarly, Senegalese President Abdoulaye Wade, responded to his critics by saying that Zimbabwe's problems are the legacy of colonialism.[118]
Mugabe's supporters characterize him as a true Pan-Africanist and a dedicated anti-imperialist who stands strong against forces of imperialism in Africa. According to Mugabe's supporters, the Western media are not objectively reporting on Zimbabwe, but are peddling falsehoods. Mugabe's supporters accuse certain western governments of trying to eradicate pan-Africanism in order to deny real independence to African countries by imposing client regimes.[119]
The Times of London charged that on June 12, 2008, Mugabe's Militia murdered Dadirai Chipiro, the wife of Mugabe's political opponent, Patson Chipiro, by burning her alive with a petrol bomb after severing her hands and feet.[120]
Bans on travel in the E.U. and the U.S.A.
After observers from the European Union were barred from examining Zimbabwe's 2002 elections, the EU imposed a ban on Mugabe and 94 members of his government. The United States instituted a similar ban. The EU's ban has a few loopholes, resulting in Mugabe taking a few trips into Europe despite the ban. Mugabe is allowed to travel to UN events within European and American borders.[121]
On April 8, 2005, Mugabe attended the funeral of Pope John Paul II, a move which could be seen as defiance of a European Union travel ban that does not, however, apply to Vatican City. He was granted a transit visa by the Italian authorities, as they are obliged to under the Concordat. However, the Catholic hierarchy in Zimbabwe have been very vocal against his rule and the senior Catholic cleric, Archbishop Pius Ncube is a major critic, even calling for Western governments to help in his overthrow.[122][121] Mugabe surprised Prince Charles by shaking his hand during the service. Afterwards, the Prince's office released a statement saying, "The Prince of Wales was caught by surprise and not in a position to avoid shaking Mr Mugabe’s hand. The Prince finds the current Zimbabwean regime abhorrent. He has supported the Zimbabwe Defence and Aid Fund which works with those being oppressed by the regime. The Prince also recently met Pius Ncube, the Archbishop of Bulawayo, an outspoken critic of the government".[123]
Before the ban, one of Mugabe's favourite pastimes was to travel to London.[8]
Robert Mugabe and senior members of the Harare government are not allowed to travel to the United States because it is the position of the US government that he has worked to undermine democracy in Zimbabwe and has restricted freedom of the press.[124] Despite strained political relations, the United States remains a leading provider of humanitarian assistance to Zimbabwe, providing roughly $400 million in humanitarian assistance from 2002-2007, mostly food aid.[125]
Appearance at the FAO conference, June 2008
Because United Nations events are exempt from the travel bans, Mugabe attended the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) summit in Rome. African leaders threatened to boycott the event if Mugabe were blacklisted; when he was not, the United Kingdom refused to send a representative. British and Australian officials denounced the presence of Mugabe.[126][127]
Succession
As one of Africa's longest-lasting leaders, speculation has built over the years as to the future of Zimbabwe after Mugabe leaves office. His age and recurring rumours of failing health have focused more attention on possible successors within his party as well as the opposition. The March 11, 2007 crackdown against a religious gathering sponsored by the opposition attracted scrutiny.[128]
In June 2005, a report that Mugabe had entered a hospital for tests on his heart fueled rumours that he had died of a heart attack;[129] these reports were dismissed by a Mugabe spokesman. This coincided with Operation Murambatsvina (or "Drive Out Trash"), a police campaign to demolish houses and businesses that had been built without permission on land previously taken from white landholders and intended for redistribution. Opponents called this an attempt to disperse urban centres of dissent into rural areas where the government had more control. Former information minister Jonathan Moyo attributed the events to a power struggle within the party over who would succeed Mugabe.
Joyce Mujuru, recently elevated to vice-president of ZANU-PF during the December 2004 party congress and considerably younger than Joseph Msika, the other vice-president, has been mentioned as a likely successor to Mugabe. Joyce Mujuru's candidacy for the presidency is strengthened by the backing of her husband, Solomon Mujuru, who is the former head of the Zimbabwean army.
In October 2006, a report prepared by Zimbabwe's Ministry of Economic Development acknowledged the lack of coordination among critical government departments in Zimbabwe and the overall lack of commitment to end the crisis. The report implied that the infighting in Zanu-PF over Mugabe's successor was also hurting policy formulation and consistency in implementation.[130]
In late 2006, a plan was presented to postpone the next presidential election until 2010, at the same time as the next parliamentary election, thereby extending Mugabe's term by two years. It was said that holding the two elections together would be a cost-saving measure.[131] However, this plan was not approved and there were reportedly objections from some in ZANU-PF to the idea. In March 2007 Mugabe said that he thought the feeling was in favour of holding the two elections together in 2008 instead of 2010. He also said that he would be willing to run for re-election again if the party wanted him to run.[132] Other leaders in Southern Africa were rumoured to be less warm on the idea of extending his term to 2010; recently, at the independence celebrations in Ghana, South African President Thabo Mbeki was rumoured to have met with Mugabe in private and told him that "he was determined that South Africa's hosting of the Football World Cup in 2010 should not be disrupted by controversial presidential elections in Zimbabwe".[133]
On March 30, 2007, it was announced that the ZANU-PF central committee had chosen Mugabe as the party's candidate for another term in 2008, that presidential terms would be shortened to five years, and that the parliamentary election would also be held in 2008.[134] Mugabe was chosen by acclamation as the party's presidential candidate for 2008 by ZANU-PF delegates at a party conference on December 13 2007.[135]
Honours and revocations
In 1994 Mugabe was appointed an honorary Knight Grand Cross in the Order of the Bath by Queen Elizabeth II.[136] This entitled him to use the postnominal letters GCB, but not to use the title "Sir." In the United Kingdom, the House of Commons Foreign Affairs Select Committee called for the removal of this honour in 2003, and on 25 June 2008, Queen Elizabeth II cancelled and annulled the honorary knighthood after advice from the Foreign Secretary of the United Kingdom."This action has been taken as a mark of revulsion at the abuse of human rights and abject disregard for the democratic process in Zimbabwe over which President Mugabe has presided".[137]
Mugabe holds several honorary degrees and doctorates from international universities, awarded to him in the 1980s; at least two of these have since been revoked. In June 2007, he became the first international figure ever to be stripped of an honorary degree by a British university, when the University of Edinburgh withdrew the degree awarded to him in 1984.[138] On 12 June 2008, the University of Massachusetts Board of Trustees voted to revoke the law degree awarded to Mugabe in 1986; this is the first time one of its honorary degrees has been revoked.[139] Similarly, Michigan State University is currently considering revoking an honorary law degree that it awarded Mugabe in 1990.[140]
Personal life
His first wife, Sally Hayfron, died in 1992 from a chronic kidney ailment.[141] Their only son, Nhamodzenyika, born 27 September 1963, died on December 26, 1966 from cerebral malaria in Ghana where Sally was working while Mugabe was in prison. Sally Mugabe was a trained teacher who asserted her position as an independent political activist and campaigner[142] who was seen as Mugabe's closest friend and adviser, and some critics suggest that Mugabe began to misrule Zimbabwe after her death.[8]
Mugabe married his former secretary, Grace Marufu, 40 years his junior and with whom he already had two children,[143] on August 17, 1996. Mugabe and Marufu were married in a Roman Catholic wedding Mass at Kutama College, a Catholic mission school he previously attended. Nelson Mandela was among the guests. His wife, Grace, is known sarcastically as "Gucci Grace" or "The First Shopper" in reference to her numerous, lavish European shopping sprees.[144][145]
The Mugabes have three children: Bona, Robert Peter Jr. (although Robert Mugabe's middle name is Gabriel) and Bellarmine Chatunga. As First Lady, Grace has been the subject of criticism for her lifestyle. When she was included in the 2002 EU travel sanctions on her husband, one EU parliamentarian was quoted as saying that the ban "will stop Grace Mugabe going on her shopping trips in the face of catastrophic poverty blighting the people of Zimbabwe."[146] The Daily Telegraph called her "notorious at home for her profligacy" in a 2003 coverage of a trip to Paris.[147]
In fiction
The movie The Interpreter features a fictional African ruler with many parallels to Mugabe. The Mugabe government described the film as "anti-Zimbabwean" and a "CIA-campaign against Robert Mugabe".[148]
References
Notes
1. ^ Chan, Stephen (2003). Robert Mugabe: A Life of Power and Violence, 123.
2. ^ "G8 to move against Mugabe allies", BBC News (2008-07-08).
3. ^ Martin Meredith. Mugabe: Power, Plunder, and the Struggle for Zimbabwe's Future. 2007. PublicAffairs. p.243
4. ^ a b Viewpoint: Kaunda on Mugabe BBC 12 June 2007
5. ^ Biles, Peter (2007-08-25). "Mugabe's hold on Africans", BBC News.
6. ^ "Cash crisis: No end in sight". The Zimbabwe Situation. Retrieved on 2008-06-28. and dozens more references at Zimbabwean_dollar#Money_supply_.282006-2008.29
7. ^ "Zimbabwe Tells All Aid Groups to Halt Efforts". New York Times. Retrieved on 2008-06-28.
8. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n Staff (2007-03-29). "Robert Mugabe: The man behind the fist". The Economist.
9. ^ "Zimbabwe's hunger deepens as election crisis bites". Reuters. Retrieved on 2008-06-28.
10. ^ "IDMC_Internal_Displacement_Global_Overview_2007 pdf" (PDF).
11. ^ "The Daily Telegraph". See also: Guest, Robert (2005). The Shackled Continent: Africa's Past, Present and Future. Pan Books.
12. ^ a b "UK anger over Zimbabwe violence", BBC News (2000-04-01).
13. ^ a b McGreal, Peter (2007-04-02). "Corrupt, greedy and violent: Mugabe attacked by Catholic bishops after years of silence", The Guardian.
14. ^ a b Bentley, Daniel (2007-09-17). "Sentamu urges Mugabe Action", The Independent.
15. ^ "Mugabe: US must disarm", BBC News (2007-02-25).
16. ^ a b Egbuna, Obi (2003-07-31). "Zimbabwe: Who else but Mugabe?". The Black Commentator (51).
17. ^ "Colonial history tugs at EU-Africa ties", People's Daily (2007-12-05).
18. ^ "Announces “Corrected” results". Zimbabwe Metro. Retrieved on 2008-06-28.
19. ^ Staff reporter (2007-05-21). "Mugabe mourns reclusive brother", newzimbabwe.com. Retrieved on 2008-04-03.
20. ^ Nyarota, Geoffrey (2006). Against the Grain, 100.
21. ^ "President bio contents". Zimbabwean government website. Government of Zimbabwe. Retrieved on 2008-04-04.
22. ^ Christine Kenyon Jones, The People's University: 150 years of the University of London and its External students (University of London External System, 2008) pages 148-149 ISBN 0955768918
23. ^ "I am still a disciple of Nkrumah – Mugabe", General News of Monday, 2 July 2007, Ghana Home Page. Retrieved on 2007-07-03.
24. ^ Lectured at Chalimbana Teacher Training College, Zambia (1955–1958)
25. ^ Olson, James Stuart; Robert Shadle. Historical Dictionary of the British Empire, 764.
26. ^ Glaude Jr., Eddie (2002). Is It Nation Time?: Contemporary Essays on Black Power and Black Nationalism, 105.
27. ^ "How Mugabe came to power". London Review of Books. Retrieved on 2008-06-28.
28. ^ Mugabe: The price of silence, BBC, 10 March 2002
29. ^ "Zimbabwejournalists.com: Calls for justice 20 years after massacre".
30. ^ Golenpaul, Ann; Dan Golenpaul. Information Please Almanac, Atlas and Yearbook, 290.
31. ^ Human Rights Watch (2000). Abdication of Responsibility: The Commonwealth and Human Rights, 343.
32. ^ Hill, Geoff. The Battle for Zimbabwe: The Final Countdown, 78.
33. ^ Breckenridge, Robert Edgerton. Africa's Armies: From Honour to Infamy, 95.
34. ^ St. John, Lauren. Rainbow's End: A Memoir of Childhood, War, and an African Farm, 234.
35. ^ "The virtues of isolationism". The Economist. Retrieved on 2007-07-08.
36. ^ a b c "Zimbabwe Achieving Shared Growth". World Bank. Retrieved on 2008-06-28.
37. ^ "Country Health System Fact Sheet 2006 Zimbabwe". World Health Organisation. Retrieved on 2008-06-28.
38. ^ "World Economic Outlook: World Economic and Financial Surveys" p.65. International Monetary Fund (September 2006). Retrieved on 2008-06-28.
39. ^ CCN News Zimbabwe currency crashes; inflation as high as 9,000% retrieved July 4 2007
40. ^ "US says Zimbabwe change is afoot", BBC News. Retrieved on 2007-07-04.
41. ^ "Zimbabwe faces hard road to prosperity post-Mugabe", Reuters Africa. Retrieved on 2008-06-28.
42. ^ "Zimbabwe has shortage of food, abundance of zeros", Associated Press. Retrieved on 2008-06-28.
43. ^ "Zimbabwe’s top cleric urges Britain to invade". The Sunday Times (July 1, 2007). Retrieved on 2008-06-28.
44. ^ Sentamu, John, Saving Zimbabwe is not colonialism, it's Britain's duty, Observer September 16, 2007, Accessed June 24, 2008
45. ^ Page 213 Encyclopedia of Sex and Gender: Men and Women in the World's Cultures
46. ^ a b Page 180 Hungochani: The History of a Dissident Sexuality in Southern Africa
47. ^ Under African Skies, Part I: 'Totally unacceptable to cultural norms' Kaiwright.com
48. ^ Page 93 Body, Sexuality, and Gender v. 1
49. ^ Canaan Banana, president jailed in sex scandal, dies The Guardian
50. ^ Congo At War: A Briefing of the Internal and External Players in the Central African Conflict, International Crisis Group, 17 November 1998
51. ^ Lasker, John, Resource Wars in Africa: AFRICOM and the Reach of US Corporations, Toward Freedom, April 18, 2008
52. ^ DR Congo troops 'to repel Rwanda', BBC, Dec. 3, 2004
53. ^ Mugabe's costly Congo venture BBC
54. ^ Chigara, Ben (2002). Land Reform Policy. Ashgate Publishing, 52.
55. ^ Page 302 Big Men, Little People: The Leaders Who Defined Africa
56. ^ 619 The Fate of Africa: A History of Fifty Years of Independence
57. ^ Zimbabwe: The Spark...Claire Short's letter of November 1997, by Baffour Ankomah, 31 March 2003
58. ^ Sweet, Matthew, "A Bad Man in Africa," The Independent, March 16, 2002
59. ^ Page 372 Africa Review 2003/2004
60. ^ [http://www.powells.com/review/2008_01_07.html "In the Pit of Africa" A Review by Joshua Hammer. New York Review of Books, January 7, 2008
61. ^ "Constitution of Zimbabwe, Chapter III, Section 16, p. 10." (PDF).
62. ^ a b c d e f "Mugabe to speak at hunger debate as he defies EU travel ban again". Telegraph. Retrieved on 2007-07-08.
63. ^ "PM – Zimbabwe leaves the Commonwealth".
64. ^ a b c d "Mugabe's raids leave townships in tatters" (2005-03-06).
65. ^ Mugabe seizes third farm for himself, IOL, 10 September 2006
66. ^ "Harare Losing Key Allies".
67. ^ a b West boycotts Mugabe ceremony CNN
68. ^ Mugabe wins as tension hangs over Zimbabwe Christian Science Monitor
69. ^ Zimbabwe: A Dream Betrayed Association of Concerned Africa Scholars On the Edge Commentary
70. ^ "The African Union: what's in a name?".
71. ^ Let's turn the screw on Robert Mugabe Peter Kagwanja and Alba Lamberti. European Voice via International Crisis Group
72. ^ "The Zimbabwe Situation".
73. ^ Zimbabwe's Tsvangirai Has Brain Scan, Was Hurt While in Custody, Bloomberg, 14 March 2007
74. ^ Mugabe Thug Rant, Mirror, 31 March 2007
75. ^ "President writes off opposition". Retrieved on 2008-02-25.
76. ^ "Makoni accuses Mugabe of vote buying". The Zimbabwe Guardian. Retrieved on 2008-03-02.
77. ^ "Final House of Assembly Results", Zimbabwe Metro. Retrieved on 2008-06-28.
78. ^ "Robert Mugabe's reign set to end in Zimbabwe, but World fears a bloodbath", The Mirror
79. ^ Mugabe's Zanu-PF loses majority BBC News 3 April 2008
80. ^ Raids target Zimbabwe opposition party CNN 3 April 2008
81. ^ New Signs of Mugabe Crackdown in Zimbabwe New York Times 3 April 2008
82. ^ a b c d e Inside Mugabe's Violent Crackdown Washington Post 5 July 2008
83. ^ Robert Mugabe: Gordon Brown just ‘a tiny dot’ Times Online April 13 2008
84. ^ "BBC: Zimbabwe announces poll results".
85. ^ A timeline of recent events in Zimbabwe's political crisis
86. ^ "UN Blocks British, U.S. Attempts to Halt Run-Off, The Herald (allAfrica), June 25, 2008.
87. ^ Mutema, Ralph, Zimbabwe: Tsvangirai Asked Khama for Armoured Car, The Zimbabwe Guardian, June 2, 2008
88. ^ Zimbabwe's MDC Vows to Boycott Runoff With Mugabe Bloomberg May 02 2008
89. ^ Zimbabwe to bar local vote observers with 'pre-conceived ideas' AFP Jun 18 2008
90. ^ "Afp.google.com, Opposition leader returns to Zimbabwe".
91. ^ Mugabe rival quits election race BBC 22 June 2008
92. ^ Mugabe wins by 9-to-1 margin - accessed 2008-07-01.
93. ^ Mugabe likely to be inaugurated on Sunday-sources - accessed 2008-07-01.
94. ^ [1] - accessed 2008-07-01.
95. ^ Mugabe wins by 9-to-1 margin - accessed 2008-07-01.
96. ^ Pull-out irrelevant: Delay nullified run-off - accessed 2008-06-23
97. ^ afp.google.com, Mugabe begins new term as criticism of one-man election mounts
98. ^ In pictures: Mugabe's inauguration - accessed 2008-07-01.
99. ^ [2]Zimbabwe Solidarity Forum (ZSF)
100. ^ UK steps up regime change agenda, hunts for suspected assets, The Herald, July 16, 2008
101. ^ Woman Named Mugabe Unpaid in Bank Mistake Fox News, July 15, 2008
102. ^ Sam Mugabe Mistaken for Tyrant Namesake, The Sun, July 18, 2008
103. ^ "Mugabe: US must disarm", BBC News (2007-02-25).
104. ^ "Colonial history tugs at EU-Africa ties", People's Daily (2007-12-05).
105. ^ UK steps up regime change agenda, hunts for suspected assets, The Herald, July 16, 2008
106. ^ The Spectator Dictators' legacies retrieved from FindArticles.com on July 7 2007
107. ^ Tribune India Commonwealth at crossroads 52 heads failed to look beyond Zimbabwe! retrieved July 7 2007
108. ^ National Union of Mineworkers TUC Backs Zimbabwe's Trade Unions retrieved July 7 2007
109. ^ Guest, Robert. The Shackled Continent: Africa's Past, Present and Future. Pan Books, 2005
110. ^ "'Hitler' Mugabe launches revenge terror attacks – Telegraph".
111. ^ President Signs Zimbabwe Democracy and Economic Recovery Act 21 December 2001
112. ^ "Mugabe stripped of degree honour", BBC (6 June 2007). See also: "Mugabe loses Honorary Degree from UMass". The New York Times. Retrieved on 2008-06-28.
113. ^ "UMass students aim to revoke honorary degree for Mugabe – The Boston Globe".
114. ^ Rainbow Banned From Screening "Anti-Mugabe" Movie, ZimDaily, 23 September 2005
115. ^ "The World's Worst Dictators – 2007".
116. ^ Robert Mugabe 'unlikely to flee Zimbabwe', Daily Telegraph, 4.4.2008
117. ^ Peter Biles: "Mugabe's hold on Africans." BBC News website, 25 August 2007. Retrieved 27 August 2007.
118. ^ "Colonial history tugs at EU-Africa ties," People's Daily
119. ^ Kwanisai Mafa, "Zimbabwe: Imperialism Will Meet Its Death On Election Day", The Herald (Harare), 19 March 2008
120. ^ "Robert Mugabe's militia burn opponent’s wife alive". The Times. Retrieved on 2008-06-28.
121. ^ a b "•MUGABE DEFIES EU, FLIES TO ROME". MSNBC. Retrieved on 2007-07-08.
122. ^ Mugabe warns Catholic bishops over politics Reuters retrieved 4 July 2007
123. ^ "Charles shakes hands with Mugabe at Pope's funeral". Times. Retrieved on 2007-07-08.
124. ^ Recent OFAC Actions, US Dept. of Treasury, November 23, 2005 (accessed 02/07/2008)
125. ^ http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/5479.htm U.S. Department of State, Bureau of African Affairs, February 2008 (accessed 04/02/2008)
126. ^ "afp.google.com/article/ALeqM5iN7-bIe4r7GRfYcxabOT7WbWLaSw".
127. ^ "afp.google.com/article/ALeqM5gUQxFQpnXvjBlmAW76S247JHjUiQ".
128. ^ ""Activist held in Zimbabwe crackdown"".
129. ^ Zimbabwe denies reports Robert Mugabe is dead, CTV, 7 June 2005
130. ^ Zim government in chaos, says secret report IOL
131. ^ "Mugabe set to rule until 2010", IRIN, 14 December 2006.
132. ^ "Mugabe ready for 2008 elections", DPA (IOL), 12 March 2007.
133. ^ BBC News S Africa changes tune on Zimbabwe retrieved July 4 2007
134. ^ "Zimbabwe's Mugabe to stand in 2008 poll", Reuters (Sydney Morning Herald), March 31, 2007.
135. ^ "Mugabe to run again for Zanu-PF", BBC News, December 13, 2007.
136. ^ "Mugabe honorary knighthood annulled".
137. ^ "Foreign and Commonwealth Office Statement". See also "Queen strips Robert Mugabe of knighthood to mark 'revulsion' at violence", Times Online. Retrieved on 2008-06-25. and "Robert Mugabe to be stripped of knighthood", The Daily Telegraph. Retrieved on 2008-06-25. and Cowell, Alan. "Queen Strips Mugabe of Knighthood", The New York Times. Retrieved on 2008-06-26.
138. ^ "Mugabe stripped of degree by Edinburgh", The Times. Retrieved on 2007-07-04. See also: Paul Kelbie (July 15, 2007). "Edinburgh University revokes Mugabe degree", The Observer. Retrieved on 2008-06-28.
139. ^ "UMass revokes Mugabe's honorary degree", The Boston Globe. Retrieved on 2008-06-28.
140. ^ "MSU considers revoking Mugabe honorary degree", Detroit Free Press. Retrieved on 2008-07-22.
141. ^ The New York Times, "Obituaries: Sally Mugabe, Zimbabwe President's Wife, 60", January 28, 1992
142. ^ FO's fight over Mugabe's wife | Politics | The Guardian
143. ^ "Where We Have Hope: A Memoir of Zimbabwe By Andrew Meldrum"
144. ^ Brook, Sally, The Sun, UK, March 4, 2004
145. ^ [http://www.eastandard.net/archives/cl/hm_news/news.php?articleid=1143958026&date=10/9/2006 Ng’ang’a, Nixon, The Standard, Kenya, September 10, 2006
146. ^ Mugabe's wife on EU sanctions list, BBC, 22 July 2002
147. ^ Truffle dinners for £190 at the Mugabes' glittering hideaway, Telegraph, 2 February 2003<
148. ^ "Zimbabwe accuses CIA of film plot", BBC news (5 September 2005). Retrieved on 2008-06-28.
Bibliography
* Chan, Stephen (2003). Robert Mugabe: A life of power and violence. London: IB Taurus. ISBN 9781860648731.
* East, R. and Thomas, Richard J. Profiles of People in Power: The World ́s Government Leaders, 2003 ISBN 185743126X.
* Holland, Heidi. Dinner with Mugabe, 2008. Penguin, South Africa. ISBN 9780143025573.
* Meredith, Martin : Mugabe: Power and Plunder in Zimbabwe, 2003. Oxford [rev. updated ed.] ISBN 1586482130 (American ed.: Our votes, our guns
* Mwakikagile, Godfrey. Nyerere and Africa: End of an Era, 2006, Chapter Eight: "The Rhodesian Crisis: Tanzania's Role." New Africa Press, South Africa. ISBN 9780980253412.
* Nolan, Cathal J. Notable U.S. Ambassadors Since 1775: A Biographical Dictionary, 1997 ISBN 0313291950
* The Times (SA) Online. 'The angry little boy who showed them all'. Published: 01 Mar 2008.
* Who's Who : African Nationalist Leaders in Rhodesia by Robert Cary and Diana Mitchell, 1977,1980,1994 Reprinted by Mardon Printers (PTY) Ltd, Harare.
External links
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Dictionary definitions
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* "Mugging Mugabe" (a commentary in defence of Mugabe)
* "The truth about Mugabe" (an anti-Mugabe commentary)
* "Zimbabwe election – a defeat for imperialism"
* "Zimbabwe's silent selective starvation"
* "Robert Mugabe's War to Crush Press Freedom in Zimbabwe"
* Reporters Without Borders profile on Mugabe
* Freedom House report on Zimbabwe
* IFEX – Media Coverage Favours Mugabe
* "Robert Mugabe at UMass" from the WGBH series, Ten O'clock News
* Indict Zimbabwe's demagogue before the International Criminal Court
* "Zimbabwe and the Politics of Torture"
* Human Rights Watch on Zimbabwe
* “Comrade Mugabe is our leader”, War Vets million man march for Mugabe Zimbabwe Metro
Political offices
Preceded by
Abel Muzorewa
as Prime Minister of Zimbabwe Rhodesia Prime Minister of Zimbabwe
1980 – 1987 Post abolished
Preceded by
Zail Singh Secretary General of Non-Aligned Movement
1986 – 1989 Succeeded by
Janez Drnovšek
Preceded by
Canaan Banana President of Zimbabwe
1987 – present Incumbent
Preceded by
Paul Biya
Cameroon Chairperson of the African Union
1997 – 1998 Succeeded by
Blaise Compaoré
Burkina Faso
Party political offices
Preceded by
Herbert Chitepo Leader of the Zimbabwe African National Union
1975 – 1987 Merged with ZAPU
New political party
ZANU/ZAPU merger
Leader of the Zimbabwe African National Union-Patriotic Front
1987 – present Incumbent
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since June 2000
Robert Mugabe (President)
Joyce Mujuru / Joseph Msika (Deputy President)
Aeneas Chigwedere (Education, Sports and Culture)
Patrick Chinamasa (Justice, Legal and Parliamentary Affairs)
Amos Midzi (Energy and Power Development)
S. Mombeshora / C. Mushohwe (Transport and Communications)
J. Moyo (2000-05) / T. Jokonya (2005-07) / S. Ndlovu (since 2007) (Information)
Gideon Gono (RBZ Governor)
S. Makoni (2000-02) / H. Murerwa (2002-07) / S. Mumbengegwi (since 2007) (Finance)
Rugare Gumbo (Agriculture)
Joseph Made (Agriculture Mechanization)
Simbarashe Mumbengegwi (Foreign Affairs)
Sydney Sekeramayi (Defence)
Ambrose Mutinhiri (Youth Development and Medium Enterprises Development)
Kembo Mohadi (Home Affairs)
Obert Mpofu (Industry and International Trade)
Olivia Muchena (Science and Technology Development)
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Nicholas Goche (Public Service, Labour and Social Welfare)
Ignatious Chombo (Local Government, Public Works and Urban Development)
John Nkomo (Special Affairs)
Paul Mangwana (Indigenisation and Empowerment)
Emmerson Mnangagwa (Rural Housing and Social Amenities)
Opa Muchinguri (Women Affairs, Gender and Community Development)
Sithembiso Nyoni (Small and Medium Enterprises Development)
Webster Shamu (Policy Implementation)
Didymus Mutasa (State Security)
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Candidates in the 2008 Zimbabwe presidential election Flag of Zimbabwe
Robert Mugabe • Morgan Tsvangirai • Simba Makoni • Langton Towungana
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Flag of the African Union
Persondata
NAME Mugabe, Robert Gabriel
ALTERNATIVE NAMES
SHORT DESCRIPTION 2nd President and former Prime Minister of Zimbabwe
DATE OF BIRTH 21 February 1924
PLACE OF BIRTH Kutama Mission, Harare
DATE OF DEATH
PLACE OF DEATH
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Mugabe"
Categories: 1924 births | Alumni of the University of London External System | Cold War leaders | Current national leaders | Heads of government of Zimbabwe | Living people | Non-South African anti-apartheid activists | Presidents of Zimbabwe | University of South Africa alumni | Zimbabwean politicians | Zimbabwean revolutionaries | Zimbabwean Roman Catholics | ZANU-PF members | ZANU-PF leaders
Hidden categories: Semi-protected | All articles with unsourced statements | Articles with unsourced statements since July 2008 | Articles needing additional references from May 2008 | NPOV disputes from May 2008 | All NPOV disputes | Articles with unsourced statements since June 2008
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毛泽东
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毛泽东
毛澤東
第七至第十任中国共产党中央委员会主席
1943年3月20日至1976年9月9日
首届全国政协主席
1949年至1954年
首任中国共产党中央军事委员会主席
1954年9月8日至1976年9月9日
首任中华人民共和国主席
1954年9月27日至1959年4月27日
性别： 男
政党： 中国共产党 中国共产党
籍贯： 湖南省湘潭县
出生： 1893年12月26日
清朝湖南省湘潭县韶山冲
逝世： 1976年9月9日 （82岁）
中华人民共和国 中国北京市
配偶： 罗一秀 (1907年 - 1910年)
杨开慧 (1920年 - 1930年)
贺子珍 (1928年 - 1976年)
江青 (1938年 - 1976年)
经历
* 中华人民共和国中央人民政府主席
(1949年10月1日–1954年9月27日)
* 中华人民共和国主席
(1954年9月27日–1959年4月27日)
毛泽东系列条目
毛泽东生平
毛泽东诗词 毛泽东书法
毛泽东思想 毛主席语录
毛主席塑像 毛主席像章
毛泽东（普通话：Máo Zédōng 文件－播放 1893年12月26日－1976年9月9日），字咏芝（或润芝、润之），笔名子任，中国湖南湘潭韶山冲人，中国政治人物，军事家，中国共产党、中国人民解放军和中华人民共和国的主要缔造者和领导人[1]之一，三大改造、反右、大跃进、文化大革命等一系列政治运动的主要发动者与领导人，对20世纪的中国及世界产生了深远影响。
目录
[隐藏]
* 1 生平
o 1.1 早年
o 1.2 秋收起义到遵义会议
o 1.3 遵义会议到七大
o 1.4 七大到中华人民共和国成立
o 1.5 建国初期
o 1.6 左倾开始
o 1.7 文化大革命时期
* 2 政治生涯
o 2.1 毛泽东与国民党
o 2.2 毛泽东与知识分子
o 2.3 毛泽东与世界
o 2.4 毛泽东与政治伙伴
o 2.5 个人崇拜
o 2.6 毛泽东主导的政治运动
* 3 军事生涯
* 4 家庭
* 5 著作
o 5.1 理论著作
o 5.2 毛泽东诗词
o 5.3 毛泽东书法
o 5.4 毛主席语录
o 5.5 稿费
* 6 历史影响和评价
o 6.1 中国共产党官方评价
o 6.2 正面评价
o 6.3 负面评价
o 6.4 个人评价
o 6.5 对世界的影响
* 7 毛泽东思想
* 8 以毛泽东为题材的纪念
* 9 注释
* 10 参考文献
* 11 参见
* 12 外部链接
[编辑] 生平
主条目：毛泽东生平
[编辑] 早年
自左向右：毛泽覃、毛泽民、文七妹、毛泽东，1919年在长沙合影
自左向右：毛泽覃、毛泽民、文七妹、毛泽东，1919年在长沙合影
毛泽东的第二任妻子杨开慧
毛泽东的第二任妻子杨开慧
1893年12月26日，毛泽东出生在中国湖南省长沙府湘潭县韶山冲（今湖南省湘潭市韶山市）的一个中农家庭中，是毛贻昌（毛顺生，1870-1920）和文七妹（1867-1919）的第三个儿子（但前两个均幼年夭折）。1907年，毛贻昌为他配婚与罗氏（罗一秀），但毛泽东始终不承认这桩婚事。1911年春，到湖南长沙湘乡驻省中学求学。1912年，以第一名的成绩考入湖南全省公立高等中学校（今长沙市第一中学），次年春考入湖南省立第四师范学校，学校后来并入湖南省立第一师范。
1918年4月，与蔡和森等人创建新民学会。1918年夏，卒业湖南第一师范学校。1919年7月，他主编的《湘江评论》在长沙创刊。随后由于杂志社破产而失业。1920年在去上海途中结识陈独秀,陈给毛提供了一个工作的机会,即在长沙卖由陈主编的新青年.同时受此影响,毛开始注意共产主义.1921年7月，与何叔衡一起代表湖南共产主义学习小组赴上海出席中国共产党第一次全国代表大会。毛和刘仁静是会议书记员。1921年8月，毛泽东参加中共“一大”后返湘，择湖南省立第三师范学校（湖南三师）为湖南建党据点之一，10月10日，建立中共湖南支部，任书记。
1920年冬，与杨昌济之女杨开慧结婚。1922年5月，中共湘区执行委员会成立，任书记。1922年7月，赴上海参加党的二大，因没有找到会议地址，未能出席会议。1923年6月，在广州中国共产党第三次全国代表大会上，毛泽东当选为中央局五名委员之一，并任秘书。1924年1月，在广州中国国民党第一次全国代表大会上被选为中央候补执行委员。2月，到上海，任国民党上海执行部委员、组织部秘书等职。1926年1月，在国民党二大再次当选中央候补执行委员。
1925年1月，中国共产党在上海举行第四次全国代表大会，毛落选中央局委员。1925年9月，到广州，参加国民党第二次全国代表大会筹备工作。1925年10月，毛泽东代理中国国民党宣传部部长。1927年3月，发表《湖南农民运动考察报告》。1927年3月，在武昌同邓演达等创办中央农民运动讲习所。
[编辑] 秋收起义到遵义会议
青年时代的毛泽东
青年时代的毛泽东
1927年8月7日，出席了中共在汉口召开的紧急会议（八七会议），他提出了“枪杆子里出政权”的观点。会议派遣毛到群众基础较好的湖南组织秋收起义。1927年9月毛泽东作为中共中央特派员被派到湖南，和中共湖南省委一起领导湘赣边界秋收起义。1927年9月29日，毛泽东率秋收起义部队到达江西永新县三湾村时，提出“支部建在连上”、“党指挥枪”的原则，称“三湾改编”。三湾改编确定了“党指挥枪”的原则。1928年4月，与朱德领导的南昌起义受挫，余部在宁冈砻市会师，成立红四军。
1928年秋，与永新县革命委员会主席贺敏学的妹妹贺子珍同居[来源请求] （与杨开慧并未离婚，杨开慧于1930年底被何键杀害）。
1929年11月下旬，毛把部队集中到红色江西的中心，宣布彭德怀军里发现了AB团组织，首领叫甘隶臣，罪名是“煽动官兵脱离前委领导”，就此开始逮捕和处决他称为的AB团成员。[来源请求]
1929年12月，在古田会议上，毛泽东再次当选前委书记，古田决议明确了红军建设的根本原则是党对军队的绝对领导。
1930年1月5日，毛泽东针对林彪“红旗还可以打多久”的疑问给他写了复信(即《星星之火，可以燎原》)，提出了“农村包围城市”的主张。1930年6月，根据中共中央指示，红四军、红十二军和红六军(7月改称红三军)在福建汀州(即长汀)整编为中国工农红军第一路军，朱德任总指挥，毛泽东任政委。
1930年10月到1931年9月，与朱德等领导红军反击国民政府三次大规模军事“围剿”，并取得胜利。
1931年11月1日～5日，项英为首的苏区中央局在赣南会议上，主持会议并批判毛泽东，开始排挤毛泽东在中央苏区对党和红军的领导。
1931年11月27日，毛泽东在中华苏维埃第一次全国代表大会上当选为中华苏维埃共和国临时中央政府中央执行委员会主席。
1934年10月10日晚，党中央和红军总部从瑞金出发，率领红军主力及后方机关八万六千余人向湘西进军，开始战略转移，毛泽东率中央政府随军行动。在到达甘肃南部哈达铺时，毛泽东在党的活动分子会议上首次把这次战略转移命名为长征。
[编辑] 遵义会议到七大
1931年毛泽东在中央苏区
1931年毛泽东在中央苏区
1934年2月11日，湖南信道会议，毛泽东提出放弃和红二、六军团会合的原定计划，主张向敌军力量比较薄弱的贵州方向前进。1月初，中央红军强渡乌江，7日占领遵义。
1935年1月15日—1月17日，在遵义会议增选为中共中央政治局常委、军事三人团成员（毛泽东、周恩来、王稼祥组成，最后负总责的仍是周恩来），进入中共最高层，重新取得军事前敌指挥权。1935年11月，毛泽东亲自指挥直罗镇战役，为中共中央把革命大本营设在陕北举行了奠基礼。
1936年12月7日，统一的中央革命军事委员会在保安县组成，毛泽东任主席。1937年7、 8月，毛泽东在延安抗大讲授马克思主义哲学，撰写了《实践论》和《矛盾论》。1937年9月针对八路军内部主张八路军要集中兵力打大仗、硬仗、打运动战的想法，毛泽东代表中共中央和中央军委发出了《关于独立自主的山地游击战原则》的指示，要求八路军进行独立自主的山地游击战[1]，指示林彪的115师向晋察冀山区，贺龙的120师向晋西北山区，刘伯承的129师向鲁冀平原，进入这些敌后地区发展根据地。1940年指示新四军“西起南京，东至海边，南至杭州，北至徐州，尽可能迅速地并有步骤有计划地将一切可能控制的区域控制在我们手中，独立自主地扩大军队，建立政权”[2]，鼓励新四军与国民党抗日部队争夺地盘，在此前后两军发生一系列军事冲突及后来的皖南事变。
1941年5月19日，毛泽东在延安干部会议上作《改造我们的学习》的报告。1942年2月1日，毛泽东开始了延安整风运动。1942年5 月2日，在延安杨家岭召开的文艺工作者座谈会上，毛泽东发表《在延安文艺座谈会上的讲话》，提出“文艺为人民大众、首先为工农兵服务”。该讲话成为共产党指导文艺创作的指导纲领。5月下旬，中央政治局决定成立中央总学习委员会，领导整风运动。6月8日，中宣部又发出《关于在全党进行整顿三风学习运动的指示》。通过延安整风运动，中国共产党在思想上组织上完全统一到毛泽东思想的旗帜下面了。
[编辑] 七大到中华人民共和国成立
1945年6月19日，中共中央举行七届一中全会，毛泽东被选为中央委员会主席、中央政治局主席和中央书记处书记、中央书记处主席。1945年8月9日，毛泽东发表《对日寇的最后一战》的声明。1945年8月28日，毛泽东、周恩来、王若飞在国民党代表张治中、美国大使赫尔利的陪同下从延安抵重庆，10月10日国共双方代表签署了《双十协定》。
1948年3月23日，毛泽东、周恩来、任弼时率党中央领导机关在陕北吴堡县川口东渡黄河，经晋绥解放区前往晋察冀解放区。以后于4、5月相继到达西柏坡。1948年底至1949年初，毛泽东领导指挥解放军在辽沈战役、淮海战役和平津战役（史称三大战役)中战胜国民党军队，取得内战决定性胜利。1949年2月24日，毛泽东、周恩来在西柏坡与受李宗仁派遣、以私人资格来访的颜惠庆、邵力子、章士钊等，达成关于国共和平谈判的非正式协定八点，主要内容为“谈判以中共1月14日声明及所提八点为基础”。
1949年4月20日，渡江战役发起时发生紫石英号事件，4月22日毛泽东亲自起草了新华社社论《抗议英舰暴行》。1949年6月30日，毛泽东发表《论人民民主专政》一文。 1949年9月21日至30日在中国人民政治协商会议第一届全体会议上，宣告：“占人类总数四分之一的中国人从此站立起来了。”主持制定具有宪法意义的《中国人民政治协商会议共同纲领》，并当选为中央人民政府主席。
[编辑] 建国初期
悬挂于天安门城门上的毛泽东画像
悬挂于天安门城门上的毛泽东画像
1949年10月1日，中央人民政府委员会由毛泽东主持举行第一次会议。同日在举行开国大典。毛泽东宣读中央人民政府公告，宣告中华人民共和国成立。1950年10月8日，毛泽东派遣解放军第十三兵团以中国人民志愿军名义参加朝鲜战争。1950年11月25日，长子毛岸英在朝鲜战场上阵亡。1954年，在第一届全国人民代表大会第一次会议当选为中华人民共和国主席，并主持通过《中华人民共和国宪法》。1956年4月，发表《论十大关系》。
[编辑] 左倾开始
1956年，针对知识份子对国家以及党等事务有所意见，毛提出双百方针——百花齐放、百家争鸣，鼓励知识分子和民主党派对中共提出意见。1957年，发动“反右运动”，五十五万在双百中提意见的知识分子（包括党员和非党员）被打成“右派”，遭到批判和劳动改造。对于“引蛇出洞”是阴谋的问题，毛泽东称这些不是“阴谋”，而是“阳谋”。
1957年，毛泽东在有全世界64个国家共产党高级代表参加的莫斯科会议上发表即席讲话，在论及核大战时他说：“为了世界革命的胜利，我们准备牺牲三亿中国人。”[3]
1958年，发动大跃进运动，希望能在短期内“跑步进入共产主义”。全国各地土法炼钢，誓言超英赶美。之后又实施人民公社制度。大跃进、总路线和人民公社被合称为三面红旗。有人认为这种不顾及客观规律的行为与当时的天灾叠加，造成三年困难时期的大规模人口死亡。[来源请求]
1958年，因毛泽东和赫鲁晓夫在很多重大问题上产生分歧，中苏关系恶化，苏联停止援助。
1958年8月20日，毛亲自指挥金门炮战。
由于三面红旗对国民经济的伤害极大，1958年11月第一次郑州会议到1959年7月庐山会议期间，彭德怀向毛泽东上万言书，毛泽东不接受万言书中的建议，发动批判“彭德怀反党集团”的运动。会议后，“反右倾运动”再次展开。庐山会议后，毛泽东安排林彪主持中央军委日常工作。
1962年发动的“社会主义教育运动”，到1964年发展成为四清运动”，并成为文化大革命的前奏。1963年3月，首都各大报纸发表毛泽东题词“向雷锋同志学习”，“学习雷锋好榜样”成为当时中国道德文化建设的重要内容。
[编辑] 文化大革命时期
主条目：文化大革命
文化大革命时期的宣传海报
文化大革命时期的宣传海报
1966年8月5日毛泽东用铅笔在一张报纸的边角上写了《炮打司令部——我的一张大字报》，8月7日，毛泽东在誊清稿上修订后加标题，由当日会议印发，由此拉开了文化大革命的序幕。一般认为，毛泽东出于对国内阶级斗争形势作出了极端的估计发动的这场运动中，红卫兵批斗中共干部、知识分子、地富反坏右，并展开大规模毁坏文物和书籍的“破四旧”运动。很多国人在这场运动中被迫害，刘少奇被批斗并失去人身自由，遭迫害致死，邓小平也遭免职。
1966年8月18日，毛泽东、林彪在天安门广场接见了来自全国各地的红卫兵。此后毛泽东于8月31日、9月15日、10月1日、10月18日、11月3日、11月11日和11月25、26日，共八次九天接见了超过1200万人次的红卫兵。
1968年12月22日，在《人民日报》发表毛泽东的号召后，上山下乡运动开始高潮。
1969年中国共产党“九大”，他圈定的接班人林彪被写入中国共产党党章。1971年林彪之子林立果密谋杀害毛泽东[4]。9月11日暗杀不遂，秘密活动失败，林彪被迫出走，即九·一三事件又称林彪事件。很多人认为，林彪事件是他们反思文化大革命、反思毛泽东个人崇拜的开始。
1972年毛泽东与到访的美国总统尼克松会晤
1972年毛泽东与到访的美国总统尼克松会晤
1972年2月21日下午，毛泽东与到访的美国总统尼克松会晤。1976年4月，北京群众自发聚集在天安门广场上，人民英雄纪念碑附近出现大量纪念周恩来的花圈、诗抄。毛泽东将其定性为四五反革命事件，并撤销邓小平党内外一切职务，指定华国锋为中共中央第一副主席、国务院总理。
1976年9月9日0时10分，毛泽东在北京去世，享年82岁。
[编辑] 政治生涯
[编辑] 毛泽东与国民党
北伐战争前的第一次国共合作期间，中国共产党决定党员以个人身份参加国民党开展国民革命，毛泽东此时曾经加入过国民党，并任国民党一大中央候补执委、代宣传部长，负责宣传工作。第一次国共合作失败后，国民党当局于1930年处决毛泽东的妻子杨开慧。
中日战争爆发后，由于西安事变，毛泽东领导的中国共产党与中国国民党第二次合作，结成“抗日民族统一战线”。
抗日战争胜利后，毛泽东赴重庆与蒋介石谈判，并于1945年10月10日达成《双十协定》。但次年（1946年）6月协议即被撕毁，全面内战爆发。毛泽东领导人民解放军在国共内战中击败国民党军队，取得中国大陆的控制权。
中共政权建立及朝鲜战争随即爆发后，海峡两岸维持对峙局面。（参见台湾问题）
[编辑] 毛泽东与知识分子
毛泽东对知识分子的态度在不同的阶段呈现不同的特点。中共执政前，毛泽东一直把知识分子当作统一战线的重要组成部分，但执政后有较大转变，毛泽东对知识分子的政策多次出现反复。
1939年，毛泽东发表《大量吸收知识分子》。1930年代和1940年代，大量知识分子和青年学生从国统区和日占区奔赴延安。
1942年毛泽东在延安发表的《在延安文艺座谈会上的讲话》，以此为标志，到毛泽东去世，这一时期的文艺创作以其鲜明的特点，在中国艺术史上形成一个独立而完整的阶段。《讲话》强调文艺“为千千万万劳动人民服务”，要起到团结人民、教育人民的作用。胡风称此讲话为“悬在知识分子头上的达摩克利斯之剑”。
1956年以前，毛泽东对知识分子采取“团结、教育、改造”的基本政策。建政后，大批留学海外人员回国，其中包括钱学森、邓稼先等著名科学家。1956年，中国科学院成立学部，海外归国科研人员占91%。1950年代和1960年代，国家共派遣一万八千余人留学，这些人全部学成归国，成为中华人民共和国科技建设的骨干。
1957年，毛泽东的知识分子观呈现向下的趋势，其间虽多次自我纠正，总的趋势是向“左”发展。1957年的反右斗争，文革的1966年至1968年阶段，是知识分子受迫害最为严重的时期。文艺界有许多知名人士自杀，著名例子有剧作家田汉、作家傅雷、作家老舍（也有人称其是在批斗中被打死。老舍之死的两种说法）等等。
毛泽东重视争取知识分子的支持，1949年前与多个社会知名学者有过密切交往；在延安的时候，制定了“为人民大众”的文艺方针，1949年后又提出“百花齐放，百家争鸣”的双百方针。另一种意见认为，毛泽东虽然提出“百花齐放，百家争鸣”，但仅仅是姿态，用毛泽东自己的话就是“阳谋”，因为在这个口号的号召下提出了政治异见的不少知识分子后来都受到不同程度的整肃。
毛泽东认为“革命”可以促使知识分子更加接近工人、农民等普通群众的运动。但由毛泽东发动的文化大革命使得中国文化和中国知识分子经受了一次浩劫，不重视文化、漠视思想的现象也在文化大革命中的部分人心中产生。中国大陆大量知识分子在建国后（主要是文化大革命前期）都受到迫害。
他对知识分子的态度的反复变化主要源于他的两点基本认识：一是知识分子必须“走与工农相结合、与实践相结合的道路”，二是知识分子从来不是一个独立的阶级，而是一个随形势的变化分别依附于不同阶级的特殊阶层。毛泽东曾把知识分子同其所属阶级的关系比作“毛”与“皮”的关系，所谓“皮之不存，毛将焉附 ”。
毛泽东对知识分子的看法基本上也可以用他自己的一段话来表达：
知识分子在其未和群众的革命斗争打成一片，在其未下决心为群众利益服务并与群众相结合的时候，往往带有主观主义和个人主义的倾向，他们的思想往往是空虚的，他们的行动往往是动摇的。因此，中国的广大的革命知识分子虽然有先锋的和桥梁的作用，但不是所有这些知识分子都能革命到底的。其中一部分，到了革命的紧急关头，就会脱离革命队伍，采取消极态度；其中少数人，就会变成革命的敌人。知识分子的这种缺点，只有在长期的群众斗争中才能克服。
（《中国革命和中国共产党》（一九三九年十二月），《毛泽东选集》第二卷第六三六页。）
[编辑] 毛泽东与世界
在毛泽东的主导下，领导了中国的共产主义运动，并影响了其它发展中国家尤其是东亚、东南亚的民族民主运动。毛泽东提出了三个世界的划分，把中国和其它的广大发展中国家划入第三世界。中国对亚洲、非洲、拉丁美洲地区的思想输出、物质援助对世界共产主义运动、民族民主运动产生了重大影响。由毛泽东主持，从建政初到其去世，中国的物质援助大约有200亿美元（邓小平语）。
唐努乌梁海地区于1920年被苏联侵占，于1944年被苏联正式吞并，当时的中华民国政府一直没有承认。后在苏联的压力下，经中蒙换图，中华人民共和国政府予以承认。通常认为主持工作的毛泽东负有责任。
[编辑] 毛泽东与政治伙伴
周恩来在1927年至1928年进入中国共产党最高领导层，是毛泽东的上级。按照1935年1月遵义会议决定：军事问题周恩来有最后决定权，毛泽东协助周恩来。1935年3月12日，在毛泽东提议下，新三人团建立，成员包括：周恩来、毛泽东和王稼祥。此后，周把最高军事权让给毛泽东，从此当毛泽东的助手。
美国总统尼克松说：“如果没有毛泽东，中国革命之火可能不会燃烧起来；如果没有周恩来，中国的革命可能被烧毁，只剩下一堆灰烬。”
毛泽东在政治上需要周恩来，文革（文化大革命）时，一些红卫兵要求批斗周恩来，“那好吧，”毛说，“让我也和他一起挨斗吧！”（《领袖们》，理查德·尼克松，世界知识出版社，1985年版，323页）
从井冈山会师开始，朱德与毛泽东就开始了长达四十几年的合作，建国后朱德基本上被闲置。但有一句话常挂在毛泽东嘴边：“猪（朱）毛猪（朱）毛，没有猪（朱），哪来猪（朱）身上的毛。”
[编辑] 个人崇拜
毛泽东早年发表各种言论反对个人崇拜，但在他的晚年他的言行却被树为一切真理的来源. 更为不幸的是这种极端个人崇拜的行为,在其人生的最后十年以不可抑制趋势的走向巅峰。他认为毛泽东思想不是他一人的思想而是共产党集体领导经验的结晶，曾反对为自己树立塑像、命名城市、在钱币上印制他的头像。他在文革中曾反对林彪鼓吹他的天才论，反对夸大个人的作用。
但个人崇拜并不因为毛泽东的早年的这些言论而停止，并且他本人的其他行为和政府政治宣传的需要在客观上推动了崇拜的发展。毛泽东在1958年的成都会议上将个人崇拜分为“正确的”和“不正确的”两类，进一步在党内推进了对他的个人崇拜。他生前八次在天安门接见红卫兵。文革时期全国各地都是他的塑像、画像、语录、手迹、书籍和像章。他逝世后，因为邓小平在反对“两个凡是”的胜利，从而结束了对他的大规模个人崇拜活动。虽然崇拜活动比以前大幅度减少，并且出现了很多对他的批评（甚至于憎恨），但直到今天中国大陆仍然有不少人以各种方式表示对他的崇拜。他的纪念地也一直是参观人数众多的景点。
[编辑] 毛泽东主导的政治运动
* 1927年3月，湖南农民运动
* 1927年到1937年，土地革命
* 1941年5月到1945年4月，延安整风运动
* 1950年初到1952年，土地改革运动
* 镇压反革命运动
* 三反五反运动
* 批判胡适运动
* 镇压胡风反党集团运动
* 反右斗争
* 大跃进
* 四清运动
* 1963年3月13日始，学雷锋运动
* 1966年5月28日到1976年10月，无产阶级文化大革命。
* 上山下乡运动
* 农业学大寨运动
* 工业学大庆运动
* 批林批孔运动
* 一打三反运动
* 批邓、反击右倾翻案风
[编辑] 军事生涯
毛泽东被中共官方宣传为中国伟大的军事家，中共历史上的许多战役的胜利，也被中共宣传为毛泽东领导的功劳。以他为代表的一批共产党领导人所总结的毛泽东军事思想，是毛泽东思想的重要组成部分。
* 1927年8月7日，在八七会议上发表“枪杆子里出政权”(非毛原创)的名言。
* 1927年9月发动了秋收起义，组织起一支工农革命武装，并带领部队上井冈山。红军在作战中不断发展。
* 1927年9月29日，毛泽东进行了“三湾改编”，确立了共产党对军队的领导权，为中国共产党建军的开始。
* 1930年10月到1931年9月，与朱德一起成功指挥了三次反围剿，并提出了“农村包围城市”的主张。
* 1935年1月，自遵义会议后，毛泽东指挥长征，成功保住共产党军队的主力。
* 八年抗战期间，坚持人民战争，建立敌后根据地,并创立了《论持久战的胜利》一书，书中除要阐述了以游击战为主，大量消耗敌人的有生力量，这一理论为解放军抗战时期的主要指导理论。
* 解放战争三大战役的指挥，将国民党主力部队在长江以北消灭。同期的军事作品《抗日战争胜利后的时局和我们的方针》、《以自卫的战争粉碎蒋介石的进攻》、《集中优势兵力，各个歼灭敌人》、《解放战争第二年的战略方针》等，进一步丰富了毛泽东军事思想的内涵。
* 1950年，朝鲜战争的策划与后方指挥。
* 1958年，金门炮战的策划与直接指挥。
* 1962年，中印边界自卫反击战的策划与后方指挥。
[编辑] 家庭
幼年毛泽东受其母亲文七妹影响很大。毛泽东虽为家中老大，但是其母之前有两次的胎儿夭折经历，故毛泽东幼年时，其母带毛泽东在后山拜滴水洞山石为干亲，并按当地习俗取小名为“石三伢子”。14岁与罗一秀结婚，由父母包办。
毛泽东先后有四位妻子，依次是：
* 罗一秀（1889-1910）：1907年由父母包办结婚，1910年春因痢疾而病逝。
* 杨开慧（1901-1930）：1920年结婚，1930年底被当时南京国民政府湖南省主席何键枪杀。
* 贺子珍（1910-1984）：1928年在井冈山与毛泽东同居，1937年前往苏联治病。后病逝于北京。
* 江青（1914-1991）：1938年在延安与毛泽东同居。为在文革时期中央文革小组及四人帮的首领。在1976年10月被华国锋和叶剑英等人逮捕，并在1980年底作出公审。1991年5月保外就医期间上吊自杀。
子女 生母 备注
长子 毛岸英 杨开慧 谱名“远仁”，1922年生于湖南长沙。1950年参加朝鲜战争，遇美军飞机轰炸而阵亡。
次子 毛岸青 杨开慧 谱名“远义”，1923年生于湖南长沙。2007年逝世。
三子 毛岸龙 杨开慧 谱名“远智”，1927年生于湖北武汉。1931年，在上海因患腹泻性紧口痢疾，送广慈医院救治无效死亡。
长女 杨月花 贺子珍 乳名“金花”，1929年生于福建龙岩，没过半个月被送给当地乡人抚养。1973年被找到并确定身份。在世。
四子 毛岸红 贺子珍 乳名“毛毛”，1932年生于福建。长征开始后，交给毛泽覃，后下落不明。
五子 贺子珍 未有名字。1933年生于江西，先天不足夭折。
次女 贺子珍 1935年生于贵州。后被送给当地的乡人抚养，下落不明。
三女 李敏 贺子珍 乳名“姣姣”，1936年生于陕北。在世。
六子 贺子珍 有俄文名而无中文名。1938年生于苏联。十个月时，患肺炎夭折。
四女 李讷 江青 1940年出生。在世。
毛泽东有一个孙子毛新宇，为毛岸青与其妻子邵华所生；曾孙毛东东，生于2003年12月26日，为毛新宇与刘滨所生。
毛泽东有2个弟弟：毛泽民（1895-1943）和毛泽覃（1905-1935），（包括毛泽民之子毛远新在内）均为共产党人。
毛泽东的亲人中，因为革命、战争而牺牲或意外逝世的有13名之多，这与毛泽东的号召有很大的关系。其中，直系亲属6位：大弟毛泽民，小弟毛泽覃，堂妹毛泽建，妻子杨开慧，长子毛岸英，侄儿毛楚雄；其他亲属7位：毛泽覃之妻赵先桂，毛泽覃继娶贺怡，毛泽建的丈夫陈芬，表侄（王季范之子）王德恒，内侄女（杨开智之女）杨展，内兄（杨开慧堂兄）杨开明，内弟（杨开慧表弟）向钧。
[编辑] 著作
[编辑] 理论著作
毛泽东选集文革前的版本
毛泽东选集文革前的版本
毛泽东选集文革时期的版本
毛泽东选集文革时期的版本
毛泽东一生著述颇丰。目前中国大陆有《毛泽东选集》（一至四卷）第二版（1991年）发行，收录了毛泽东在建国前的主要著作。其中的《实践论》、《矛盾论》、《论持久战》、《莫问资本》、《奋斗者》、《社会共产论》、《共长青年》、《新民主主义论》等等都是重要篇章。《毛泽东选集》在“文革”后不久出版第五卷，其中收录了毛泽东在1949至1957年间的主要著作，但很快不再继续发售。
1990年后，中国大陆又陆续出版发行了《毛泽东文集》（一至八卷），整理收录了《毛泽东选集》（一至四卷）以外的大量毛泽东著作。其中第六、七、八卷收录了毛泽东在1949年后的一些著作和讲话，包括著名的《论十大关系》、《正确处理人民内部矛盾问题》等，对研究1949年后毛泽东社会主义建设思想和中华人民共和国史有很大价值。
1993年12 月，由中共中央文献研究室和人民解放军军事科学院共同编辑的《毛泽东军事文集》，在毛泽东诞辰100周年之际由军事科学出版社和中央文献出版社出版。这是迄今编辑出版的毛泽东军事著作文集中最系统、最全面的一部。文集按照中国革命和建设的历史分期编为6卷。第一卷为土地革命战争时期的著作，第二卷为抗日战争时期的著作，第三、四、五卷为国共内战时期的著作，第六卷为社会主义革命和社会主义建设时期的著作。全书共编入毛泽东1927年8月至1972年12月关于军事方面的著述、电报、命令、批示、报告、信函、谈话等1612篇，包括注释在内260余万字，其中大部分是第一次公开发表。
中国官方还陆续出版了《建国后毛泽东文稿》（一至十三卷），内部发行，系统地整理毛泽东1949年后的著作、讲话和批示。是专门研究中华人民共和国史之学者的重要参考。《毛泽东早期文稿》，收录了1912至1921年间毛泽东青年时的一些文章。
[编辑] 毛泽东诗词
主条目：毛泽东诗词
毛泽东创作了许多著名的诗词。 毛泽东诗词流传有多个不同版本。其中《沁园春·雪》、《沁园春·长沙》、《七律·人民解放军占领南京》、《蝶恋花·答李淑一》等都是著名作品。在中华人民共和国建国之后，毛泽东的多首诗词被谱成乐曲广为传唱。郭沫若是毛泽东诗词的主要唱和者，柳亚子也有过和毛诗词唱和的故事。也有人认为毛的诗词宏大而不精致[5]。
《沁园春·雪》是政治影响最大的一首词。这首词作于1936年，毛泽东在1945年访问重庆前夕特意发表，对陪都各界震撼极大。
中国大陆出版有各种版本的毛泽东诗词选集和注释赏析，其中以中央文献出版社的《毛泽东诗词集》最为著名。
[编辑] 毛泽东书法
主条目：毛泽东书法
毛泽东诗词《沁园春·长沙》手迹
毛泽东诗词《沁园春·长沙》手迹
毛泽东酷爱书法。他晚年的书法已自成一体，被称为“毛体”。他在少年时代进入私塾学习颜体；后来进入湖南省第一师范学校，改习魏碑；1920年前后，开始追摩二王。很多报刊杂志、单位、建筑物上都留下了他的字迹，如人民日报、人民邮电、新华书店、人民教育出版社等等。一些高校校名都使用毛体字，但其中只有很少的一部分为毛泽东亲笔题名，其它大部分为集字所成。在各种建筑中广泛使用毛体字有“一切为了人民健康”，“ 发展体育运动，增强人民体质”，“为人民服务”，“新文化”，“实事求是”等。改革开放后由于大规模个人崇拜活动的停止，使用毛体字的部门和单位日渐减少。
毛泽东亲笔题名的大学：北京大学、清华大学、北京师范大学、北京工业大学、北方交通大学、北京语言学院、山东大学、复旦大学、南开大学、天津大学、湖南大学、湘潭大学、安徽大学、华南农学院、贵州大学。
人们对毛泽东书法的喜好并不一致。喜爱毛泽东书法的人认为，他晚年草书臻于炉火纯青，直笔劲书，汪洋恣肆，任意挥洒，线条奔放呈左斜势，动感强烈；也有不少人不喜欢他的书法风格，有批评认为：毛泽东的书法是名人书法，不是名家书法，并没有多少艺术性；对他书法的推崇是由于当时毛的地位等其它因素造成。
[编辑] 毛主席语录
主条目：毛主席语录
《毛主席语录》是毛泽东著作中名言警句的选编本。因为最流行的版本用红色封面包装，又是红色领袖的经典言论，所以文化大革命中被普遍称为“红宝书”。而在文革时期，由于红卫兵随时截查路人，检查他们是否忠于毛主席，于是所有人都“宝书不离手，语录不离口”，表示跟上形势。[来源请求]
“文革”期间，《毛主席语录》被大量发行，更被翻译成多国语言，有估计在全球发行8亿册左右。1969年，还出版了一本《毛泽东思想万岁》。
[编辑] 稿费
稿费是毛泽东的一项主要收入。根据“韶山毛泽东同志纪念馆”所编的《毛泽东遗物事典》（红旗出版社1996年11月版），截至1960年底，毛泽东的稿酬共结余487090.13元。而《毛泽东亿万稿酬的争议》（见2003年10月30日《精品书摘》，此文先后被《党史文苑》、《党史博采》转载）一文指出，在1967年，毛泽东的稿酬已达人民币570余万，到了1976年12月，则累积为7582余万（大部分存于以“中共中央中南海第一党小组”名义开立的户口，毛泽东的个人账户上仅有八九十万元左右），到2001年5月底，稿酬总额共计1.3121亿元[6]。
尽管稿酬数额巨大，但不可否认的是，这些稿酬中仅有很小一部分用于毛泽东及其亲属的个人生活，据记载，其用途包括：
* 1959年至1967年，先后从稿酬中提取32万元，给多名党外知名人士，最著名的是章士钊和程思远；
* 1965年至1976年，先后9次提取38万元人民币和2万美元给江青；
* 毛泽东去世后，由中共中央办公厅先后给李敏、李讷二人拨款近200万元，让其购买住宅并留作家用
关于稿酬的性质和处理，据同一文章记载，2003年7月，中共中央党史研究室，中直机关工委就毛泽东稿酬问题，向国务院请示。国务院的批示为(该批示未见载于国务院正式媒体）：
1. 作为特殊性质、特殊情况处理毛泽东的稿酬、版权费，以不纳税为准
2. 作为党的特殊资产处理
3. 如果毛泽东的亲属要领取，原则上按照以前的政策办理。
毛泽东去世后，江青多次提出继承毛泽东的稿酬遗产，均被中共中央拒绝。
* 注：根据中红网、新华网、人民网联合刊载的《揭开毛泽东“亿元稿费”谣传的真相——访毛主席“管家”吴连登》一文可见，以上内容主要依据——《毛泽东亿万稿酬的争议》一文实属毫无根据的谣言，应当予以删除。本人上次编辑的内容不知何故被删除，请本条的主要编辑人员予以解释。来源：http://cpc.people.com.cn/GB/85037/85039/7561118.html
[编辑] 历史影响和评价
毛泽东是中华人民共和国、中国共产党、中国人民解放军的创始人和领导人之一，对中国近代历史起到了巨大的影响，毛泽东的一生也充满争议。他对中国共产党成立和初期发展（1921年-1927年）有关键性的作用；遵义会议以后他是对共产党及其军队的发展直至最后在大陆夺取政权（1927年-1949年）这段时期的共产党最重要的领导人。他带领的中国共产党及其军队在取得了在中国大陆的政权后，进行社会主义改造，意图把中国改变成为以公有制为主体的社会主义国家。建国后，他发动一系列政治运动，为了击败党内外的政治对手和反对者，他是反右、三年大饥荒、文化大革命关键指挥者，而这一系列运动造成中国大量人口的死亡和中华文化的破坏。与此同时，中国的人口增长和识字率水平达到了之前3000年以来的顶点。以他命名的毛泽东思想作为指导思想被写入1954年后历次中华人民共和国宪法，毛泽东本人的军事思想也被作为中国人民解放军的重要指导思想。
对毛泽东的评价明显两极化，毛泽东是世界上最受争议的已故国家领导人之一。
支持者认为他在抗日战争中领导的的敌后游击力量，与正面战场上的国民军队一起取得抗日的胜利。后来他发动的抗美援朝战争，赢得了民族尊严；推翻了在中国大陆统治腐败的国民政府，之后进行土地改革，是中国农民最终分得了土地，并建立了一个相对廉洁的、“为人民服务”的政府；他对中国进行苏化的社会主义建设，建立了相对完整的国民经济体系和工业、农业、军事、安全体系，研制出了包括“两弹一星”等高先技术；他在晚年提出“三个世界”划分理论，把中国划分在第三世界的范畴；中华人民共和国取代中华民国成为联合国常任理事国，与包括美国、德国、日本等100多个国家建立了外交关系，为后来的改革开放奠定了国际发展环境。他统治中国的时期是中国有史以来人口增长速度最快的时期，平均寿命增加最多的时期，识字率增长最快的时期。
反对者认为他是封建帝王的翻版，未能摆脱浓厚的封建意识，抗战期间规避与侵华日军发生大规模的军事冲突，意图保留中国共产党的军事力量以为日后的国共内战作准备。取得政权后的土改、镇反政策造成了巨大规模的杀戮；他统治中国期间的经济发展，始终处于混乱、停滞之中；他作为三年大饥荒主要责任人，造成中国数千万人口的非正常死亡。他在政治上完全亦背弃了夺取政权之前做出的民主承诺，在人权保障、言论自由、民主法治、清廉度等各个方面，相比于中华民国时期不仅没有丝毫改善，反而是严重的倒退。而其主导的多次政治运动，严重破坏了中国的社会经济和传统文化，在很多方面导致社会倒退，这一副作用深刻影响了中国几代人的各项素质。
1976年6月13日，毛泽东对华国锋、王洪文、张春桥、汪东兴等当时主要领导人回顾自己的一生时说：“中国有句古话叫作盖棺论定，我虽未盖棺也快了，总可以论定了吧？我一生干了两件事：一是与蒋介石斗了那么几十年，把他赶到那么几个海岛上去了；抗战八年，把日本人请回老家去了；打进北京，总算进了紫禁城。对这件事，持异议的人不多，只有那么几个人在我耳边叽叽喳喳，无非是让我收回那几个海岛(暗指台湾)罢了。另一件事，你们都知道，就是发动文化大革命。这事拥护的人不多，反对的人不少。这件事没有完，这笔遗产得交给下一代。怎么交？和平交不成就动荡中交，搞得不好，后代怎么办？就得血雨腥风了。你们怎么办？只有天知道。”
无论如何，毛泽东个人对20世纪中国的影响是关键性的。
[编辑] 中国共产党官方评价
文革期间，中华人民共和国官方将毛泽东称为：“伟大的导师，伟大的领袖，伟大的统帅，伟大的舵手”（四个伟大），“中国人民的大救星”，“人民群众心中的红太阳”等一系列极致称谓。
1976年毛泽东逝世时，中共中央发布的悼文是：“我党我军我国各族人民敬爱的伟大领袖、国际无产阶级和被压迫民族被压迫人民的伟大导师、中国共产党中央委员会主席、中国共产党中央军事委员会主席、中国人民政治协商会议全国委员会名誉主席毛泽东同志，在患病后经过多方精心治疗，终因病情恶化，医治无效，于一九七六年九月九日零时十分在北京逝世。”
1981年中共中央通过《关于建国以来党的若干历史问题的决议》，总结建国后的历史，进行全面否定文革，并对毛泽东进行了官方评价：“毛泽东是伟大的马克思主义者，是伟大的无产阶级革命家、战略家和理论家”，虽然晚年犯了严重错误（主要指文革），但是就一生来看“功绩是第一位的，错误是第二位的”，“为我们党和中国人民解放军的创立和发展，为中国各族人民解放事业的胜利，为中华人民共和国的缔造和我国社会主义事业的发展，建立了永远不可磨灭的功勋”，“为世界被压迫民族的解放和人类进步事业作出了重大的贡献”。
1997年之后，中华人民共和国官方对毛泽东的称谓是：“伟大的马克思主义者，伟大的无产阶级革命家、战略家和理论家，近代以来中国伟大的爱国者和民族英雄，党和国家的第一代领导集体的核心”。
中国共产党官方认为毛泽东在抗日战争中起到重要作用。二战的远东大陆战场上以毛泽东指挥的中国共产党的敌后战场和抗日根据地对日军有一定的牵制作用。
[编辑] 正面评价
* 毛泽东的支持者认为他指导的共产党以近乎微小的军事实力在中国大陆打败800万国民革命军和赶走国民政府，土地改革后使占中国大多数人口的农民获得了自己的土地，并统一了中国大陆，将之前国民政府尚未能有效统治的部分地区（如新疆、西藏）归于中国中央政府的统治之下。
* 毛泽东使中华人民共和国与苏联决裂，被支持者认为是自1840年以来中国彻底摆脱任何外来大国的干涉。
* 毛泽东掌握政权期间中国人的人均寿命从1949年前战争时期的30岁不到，提高到1973-75年间的约65岁（男63.6，女66.3）[7]。
* 毛泽东创造的中华人民共和国中工人农民获得较高的政治地位，妇女获得彻底自由。
* 一些农民认为毛泽东主政时期推行合作化，通过发动集体劳动大力发展农业基础设施建设，特别是农村水利。
* 支持者认为毛泽东坚持主张的朝鲜战争阻止了以美国为首的联合国派遣军队，中．苏．北朝鲜三方联手恢复金日成政权原有的统治权力，间接为中国当时东北的工业区保留了缓冲地，坚强的捍卫共产阵营重大利益，而在朝鲜的军事胜利也提升了中国在联合国的国际影响力。
* 毛主席当年坚持开发核武,使中国有了保护自己国家的力量;使得中国能站在国际舞台上,并取代了国民政府，使中华人民共和国成为联合国内中国的代表。
* 越南战争阻止了以美国为首的西方势力的入侵,除了对越南统一有决定性之外,也使中国免于腹背受敌
[编辑] 负面评价
* 毛泽东领导的共产党夸大其在抗日战争中的功绩。毛泽东领导下的共产党军队在抗日战争中全力避免与日军发生正面冲突，以保存并发展其的军事实力，积极地扩张“解放区”的势力范围，消极抗日乃至执行卖国主义，以求为日后夺取全国政权作准备。将主要的抗日军事压力转移给蒋中正领导的国民革命军。[8][9][10]
* 毛主政时期长期执行的“左”倾政策尤其是文革给中国各个方面带来巨大的灾难，让中国文化和教育等事业遭到破坏（参见文化大革命等章目）：大跃进和反右等政治运动中打压了知识界的学术言论，大量知识分子身心乃至生命受到践踏，这也是的日后中国的知识界产生一片人才断层；文化大革命中，很多国家领导人、干部、知识分子等以及平民遭到了各种程度的迫害，大量的文物、古迹遭到毁坏。一代中国人无法正常接受高等教育，造成了知识断层，影响了中国后来的发展。是整个中华民族的空前浩劫。
* 毛泽东主政期间造成大量非正常死亡。他曾主持镇压反革命运动，官方公布运动结束时共处死了71.2万人。[11]由毛泽东直接主导的三年大饥荒更导致了中国数千万人民的死亡（参见三年大饥荒等章目）。
* 毛泽东的政治挂帅和以阶级斗争为纲的作法和不顾实际盲目赶超，根本上背叛了经济的发展规律，扰乱了中国的经济发展，破坏了1950年代初期的良好发展势头。在他主政时期，中国的经济政策极不稳定，经济发展常常被政治运动干扰，人民物质文化生活匮乏，国民经济在世界排名位于倒数。
* 毛泽东所谓的“独立自主政策”一方面拒绝了美苏两大国可能的支持，另一方面却在“左”倾的外交思想指导下不顾中国实际国力而大量援助众多第三世界国家，给中国造成无以承受的经济负担。三年困难时期、唐山大地震，这种天灾人祸发生的时候，毛瞒报死亡人数，更多番拒绝外界的援助，导致大量人口的死亡。[12]
* 他被评是20世纪与希特勒、斯大林并列的三大独裁者[13][14]，认为无产阶级专政是“一党专政”，也有人批评毛泽东是“一人专政”。因此有评论指毛泽东与中国共产党建立的政权是一个社会退步。
* 毛泽东虽然主持了1954年中华人民共和国宪法的制定，却完全缺乏宪政、民主观念，帝王思想浓厚[来源请求]，他拒绝进行权力分立制衡，始终保持着权力的高度集中，阻碍了中国大陆社会的法制建设和民主改革。这是他晚年一系列错误的根源，也是大跃进、文化大革命失去控制，给国家造成深重灾难的主要原因之一[来源请求]。
* 毛泽东被认为为维护跟苏联的关系，在法理上承认外蒙古的事实独立，承认苏联占领中国领土唐努乌梁海；且认为在1929年的中苏冲突中（国民政府时期），毛泽东和中国共产党出于意识形态的一致站在苏联人一边。[15]
* 毛泽东坚持主张参与朝鲜战争，反对者认为当时形势并没他猜测的那么危险，美国并无意扩大朝鲜战争，军事挑战中华人民共和国。
[编辑] 个人评价
* 邓小平评价毛泽东是“三分过，七分功”，“尽管毛主席过去有段时间也犯了错误，但他终究是中国共产党、中华人民共和国的主要缔造者。拿他的功和过来说，错误毕竟是第二位的。他为中国人民做的事情是不能抹杀的。从我们中国人民的感情来说，我们永远把他作为我们党和国家的缔造者来纪念”，“毛主席一生中大部分时间是做了非常好的事情的，他多次从危机中把党和国家挽救过来。没有毛主席，至少我们中国人民还要在黑暗中摸索更长的时间。毛主席最伟大的功绩是把马列主义的原理同中国革命的实际结合起来，指出了中国夺取革命胜利的道路。应该说，在六十年代以前或五十年代后期以前，他的许多思想给我们带来了胜利，他提出的一些根本的原理是非常正确的。他创造性地把马列主义运用到中国革命的各个方面，包括哲学、政治、军事、文艺和其他领域，都有创造性的见解”，“他在生前没有把过去良好的作风，比如说民主集中制、群众路线，很好地贯彻下去，没有制定也没有形成良好的制度”，“不仅今天，而且今后，我们都要高举毛泽东思想的旗帜”。
* 胡锦涛评价毛泽东时代与后来改革开放时代的关系时说：“改革开放伟大事业，是在以毛泽东同志为核心的党的第一代中央领导集体创立毛泽东思想，带领全党全国各族人民建立新中国、取得社会主义革命和建设伟大成就以及艰辛探索社会主义建设规律取得宝贵经验的基础上进行的。新民主主义革命的胜利，社会主义基本制度的建立，为当代中国一切发展进步奠定了根本政治前提和制度基础。”
* 毛泽东前秘书李锐说:“关于毛一生功罪，我说过三句话：革命有功，执政有错，文革有罪。这当然是很笼统的说法。对于中国共产党来说，毛一生做了两件大事，夺取政权和执掌政权。据老中宣部长陆定一的说法，毛做前一件大事，七分成绩，三分错误；做后一件事，三分成绩，七分错误。”（哈佛大学费正清东亚研究中心举办的毛泽东诞辰110周年学术讨论会的发言稿，2003年12月）
* 胡绳认为毛泽东“曾染上过民粹主义色彩”（《社会主义和资本主义的关系：世纪之交的回顾和前瞻》，《中共党史研究》1998年第6期）。他也认为，“至少在毛泽东一生最辉煌的时期之一，即大体在民主革命时期的1939年到1949年，毛泽东不但没有丝毫染上民粹主义的思想，而且是坚决地反对民粹主义的。……甚至可以说，虽然过去我们党内有些同志表示反对民粹主义，但从理论和实践两方面坚定地、透彻地反对民粹主义，毛泽东是我们党内的第一人。……毛主席的伟大就在这里，不仅提出了新民主主义论，而且领导全党和全军在新民主主义革命的紧要关头大胆地跃进，取得了胜利。”谈到人民公社，他“认为从人民公社就能够进入共产主义”的思想“属于民粹主义的范畴”。（《毛泽东的新民主主义论再评价》，《中共党史研究》期号199903，3～15页）
* 现代诗人、散文家聂绀弩曾用四句话评价毛泽东：“身败名裂”，“家破人亡”，“众叛亲离”，等到一切真相被揭开，他还要“遗臭万年”。[来源请求]
* 美国耶鲁大学教授莫里斯·迈斯纳认为：“毛泽东的那个时代远非是现在普遍传闻中所谓的经济停滞时代，而是世界历史上最伟大的现代化时代之一”，“毛泽东时代在促进中国现代工业改造——而且是在极为不利的国际国内条件下做的——过程中取得了巨大的成就”。（《旁观毛泽东时代》，《邓小平时代：1978－1994，对中国社会主义命运的考察》第8章第一部分）[来源请求]
* 美国普林斯顿大学东亚研究系教授、著名汉学家林培瑞（Perry Link）批评：毛功绩不到一成，过错却超逾九成，大饥荒、反右、文化大革命，千万计中国人死亡；而当毛泽东“为人民服务”的理想宣布死亡、谎言爆破之际，人民向钱看，公共生活道德空虚，骗子、假货满街满巷。[2]
* 中国共产党人士谢韬（原中国人民大学副校长、中国社会科学出版社副社长）在《炎黄春秋》杂志2007年第2期上发表的《民主社会主义模式与中国前途》中评价：“毛泽东取代了蒋介石，各党各派，全国人民，希望毛泽东兑现延安时的民主诺言，成为中国的华盛顿，开民主国家新纪元。住进中南海，毛泽东变了脸，宣称他是“马克思＋秦始皇”，而且比秦始皇还要厉害一百倍，成为不穿龙袍的皇帝。他设计的权力结构和政治制度是保证和不妨碍毛泽东乾纲独断的一种制度。由于不受任何制约，不听任何反对意见，三年大跃进，饿死了三千七百五十万人，成为古今中外最大的暴政。”。
* 针对毛泽东给郭沫若的诗“劝君莫骂秦始皇，焚书之事待商量。祖龙虽死魂犹在，孔丘名高实秕糠”，胡星斗（北京理工大学教授、经济学教研室主任)说：“他 (毛泽东)认为‘治理中国需要马克思加秦始皇’，并且自称‘坑儒比秦始皇还多’。”[16]
* 曾担任共产国际驻延安联络员的彼得·弗拉基米洛夫在《延安日记》中称“毛泽东在侵略者面前向后退却，却在乘中央政府和日军冲突之机为自己渔利。在民族遭受灾难，人民备尝艰辛并作出不可估量的牺牲的时刻，在国家受制于法西斯分子的时刻，采取这种策略，岂只是背信弃义而已。毛泽东利用表面上正确的分析和共产国际的建议，以掩饰其破坏抗日统一战线的活动。他口头上说团结，行动上却拒绝团结，对日本人的军事行动减少了，反对国民党的口号提出来了。”
[编辑] 对世界的影响
* 毛泽东思想亦成为一些发展中国家的发展纲领。由于文革期间大量印制毛主席语录作思想指导，这些毛主席语录亦被翻译成英语及西班牙语，并流通到中国以外。这些在中国以外流通的毛主席语录，成为了部分中国以外发展中国家的斗争路线参考。部分恐怖组织与反政府组织，如日本赤军，秘鲁的反政府组织“光辉道路”、柬埔寨波尔布特（被海牙国际法庭判有“灭绝人类”罪）的红色高棉、尼泊尔的“毛派”共产党武装，都被很多人认为是毛泽东思想的支持者或者直接就是由中国共产党背后支持、指导。多数人认为这些激进组织希望学毛泽东在当地建立以工（人）、农（民）、（士）兵为主体，政府无腐败的国家。
* 世界各地的毛派革命家认为，毛泽东的一生中，根据自己的政治理念追求将中国建立成强大、繁荣、社会平等的共产主义国家，毛泽东思想是马克思主义的最高境界。
* 在西方社会也有人对毛泽东表示崇拜。拳王泰森在胳膊上纹上毛泽东的头像；其经纪人唐金也自称崇拜毛泽东。
[编辑] 毛泽东思想
主条目：毛泽东思想
毛泽东思想，简单说，就是马克思列宁主义的中国化，和中国革命建设经验的马克思主义化。
文化大革命期间，毛泽东曾经说：“马克思主义千条万条，归纳起来就是一条——‘革命无罪’；毛泽东思想千句万句，总结起来就是一句——‘造反有理’。”
1981年中国共产党中央委员会通过《关于建国以来党的若干历史问题的决议》，正式概括总结了毛泽东思想，指出贯串于毛泽东思想体系各个具体部分的立场、观点和方法，即毛泽东思想的活的灵魂，有三个主要方面：
* 实事求是：即要理论联系实际，解放思想，用客观实践检验真理；
* 群众路线：即一切为了群众，一切依靠群众，从群众中来，到群众中去；
* 独立自主、自力更生：即要把方针要放在本国实际和本国人民力量的基点上，找出适合本国情况的前进道路。
今天中国共产党的对毛泽东思想的定义是：以毛泽东同志为主要代表的中国共产党人，根据马克思列宁主义的基本原理，把中国长期革命实践中的一系列独创性经验作了理论概括，形成了适合中国情况的科学的指导思想，这就是马克思列宁主义普理原理和中国革命具体实践相结合的产物——毛泽东思想。
需要强调的是，“毛泽东思想”是毛泽东时代的中国共产党人集体智慧的成果，一般认为毛泽东是“毛泽东思想”的集大成者和代言人，但不能将毛泽东个人的思想与“毛泽东思想”完全等同起来。
[编辑] 以毛泽东为题材的纪念
毛主席像章
毛主席像章
以毛泽东为题材的纪念包括毛主席塑像、毛主席像章、影视作品、图片书籍、纪念馆故居、“邮 币 卡”等等，可以分为他在世时和逝世后两部分。对他的纪念的目的不一，有的表示对他的崇拜，有的因为政治原因，有的是不带政治色彩的研究探讨，也有的是为了表达对现实社会的不满。
参见：毛主席塑像及毛主席像章
* 毛主席像章
毛主席像章是以毛泽东为主要图案的像章，最早的毛主席像章制作于1937年，是由东北抗日联军颁发银质像章。1942年延安制作出第一枚毛主席像章。此后像章一直在不停制作中，到文化大革命时形成最高潮。大串联时很多人都佩带毛主席像章。毛主席像章的种类极多，从最简单的头像到有毛参与的历史事件甚至是他的诗词书法，粗略估算文革期间所制作的像章在80亿枚左右，数量无疑是世界徽章之最。
1990年代像章作为特殊历史时期的产物开始进入收藏品市场。王安建是毛泽东像章收藏的吉尼斯世界纪录保持者，共收藏有5万多枚。
* 影视作品
电影：《大决战》（八一电影制片厂，1991年）、《毛泽东》（1983年）、《开国大典》（长春电影制片厂，1989年）、《毛泽东和他的儿子》（1991年）、《中国出了个毛泽东》（1993年）、《毛泽东在1925》（潇湘电影制片厂，2001年）、《毛泽东去安源》（潇湘电影制片厂，2003年）、《走近毛泽东》（中央新闻纪录电影制片厂，2003年）、《秋收起义》（潇湘电影制片厂，1993年）、《四渡赤水》（八一电影制片厂，1983年）
电视剧：《开国领袖毛泽东》（1999年）、《青年毛泽东》（2003年）、《长征》（2001年）、《遵义会议》（1996年）、《恰同学少年》（2007年）
图书：《毛泽东》、《统帅毛泽东》、《毛泽东画传》、《毛泽东家风》《诗人毛泽东》……
老歌：除了《浏阳河》和《东方红》出现频率很高外，大部分老歌现在已经不再在公众场合出现。经历过毛泽东时代一些人因为怀旧等原因还会或唱或听这类老歌。
《浏阳河》、《东方红》、《太阳最红，毛主席最亲》、《咱们的领袖毛泽东》、《毛主席的话儿记在我们心坎里》、《北京的金山上》、《青稞美酒献给毛主席》、《草原上升起不落的太阳》、《毛主席永远和我一起》、《毛主席的战士最听党的话》、《北京有个金太阳》、《读毛主席的书》、《翻身农奴把歌唱》、《想念毛主席》、《毛主席派人来》、《日夜想念毛主席》
* 毛主席塑像
毛泽东塑像遍布全国，大部分为文革时所建造。1967年5月，清华大学树起第一座毛主席塑像，此后塑像风刮遍全国[3]。除清华大学外，很多大学校园的主入口都与毛的全身像，如复旦大学、同济大学、华中科技大学、河海大学等。城市中立有他塑像的广场多被命名为东方红广场。其诗词也经常在广场立碑。毛泽东后来表示反对立碑立像，并笑称立像是让他“风吹雨打”。
清华大学于1987年拆除毛泽东塑像，复原清华二校门。改在主楼大厅北墙上建立毛泽东青铜浮雕头像。
* 纪念地
o 北京天安门毛主席纪念堂
o 湖南韶山毛泽东故居、滴水洞、毛泽东诗词碑林
o 湖南长沙橘子洲头、爱晚亭、清水塘、湖南第一师范
o 江西井冈山八角楼
o 贵州遵义遵义会议旧址
o 陕西延安毛泽东故居
o 湖北武汉东湖宾馆
o 河南临颖县南街村
* 其他
油画：《开国大典》（董希文，1953年）、《毛主席去安源》（刘春华，1967年）、《毛主席视察广东农村》（陈衍宁，文革时期。2005年拍卖价格高达1012万元）、《毛泽东在十二月会议上》和《长征》（靳尚谊，1976年 【外部链接】）
邮票：中国和世界上10多个国家发行过毛泽东的纪念邮票。
人民币，第五套人民币（1999年版与2005年版）每种上均印有毛泽东的正面肖像与防伪水印。
[编辑] 注释
1. ^ 中国共产党成立日期辨析．新华网资料 毛泽东生平 (原文引自《中华人民共和国国史百科全书<1949-1999>》 中国大百科全书出版社1999年7月版)．
2. ^ 放手发展抗日力量，抵抗反共顽固派的进攻 毛泽东 1940年5月4日
3. ^ 1963年9月1日人民日报；《建国以来毛泽东文稿》第六册，第635—636页。
4. ^ 见五七一工程纪要
5. ^ 《书屋》 2005年第3期 张宗子：《毛泽东的〈沁园春．雪〉》
6. ^ “据统计毛泽东稿酬累计达1.3亿”，广州日报，网易，2007年12月10日．于2007年12月10日查阅．
7. ^ Penny Kane, "An Assessment of China's Health Care", The Australian Journal of Chinese Affairs, No. 11 （1984年1月刊）， 1-24页，见于第7页。
8. ^ 毛泽东曾宣称“一些同志认为日本占地越少越好，后来才统一认识：让日本多占地，才爱国。否则变成爱蒋介石的国了。国中有国，蒋、日、我，三国志” （摘自李锐《庐山会议实录》，河南人民出版社1998年7月版，第182页）
9. ^ “日本投降早了一点，再有一年我们就会准备得更好一些。”1959.8.17语，摘自《学习资料（1957～1961）》（清华大学，1967）第260页。
10. ^ “我曾经跟日本朋友谈过。他们说，很对不起，日本皇军侵略了中国。我说∶不！没有你们皇军侵略大半个中国，中国人民就不能团结起来对付你们，中国共产党就夺取不了政权。所以，日本皇军对我们是一个很好的教员，也是你们的教员。结果日本的命运怎么样呢？还不是被美帝控制吗？毛∶没有什么抱歉。日本军国主义给中国带来了很大的利益，使中国人民夺取了政权。没有你们的皇军，我们不可能夺取政权。”《毛泽东思想万岁》，第五三三至五三四页[来源请求]
11. ^ http://news.ifeng.com/history/200611/1120_25_35573_5.shtml 徐当时报告称：镇反运动以来，全国共捕了2620000余名，其中“共杀反革命分子712000余名，关了1290000余名，先后管制了1200000余名。捕后因罪恶不大，教育释放了380000余名。”
12. ^ 张戎——毛泽东：鲜为人知的故事
13. ^ [[李锐 (1917)|]]在《如何看待毛泽东》一文中写道：“境外有将希特勒、斯大林与毛泽东相提并论，称为‘二十世纪三大独裁者’，还有干脆名为‘混世魔王’的。我认为历史学者应当做的并不是道德的谴责，而是弄清历史事实的真像，进而从中总结经验教训。”
14. ^ 胡平：评毛泽东热──写在文革四十周年，《北京之春》2006年第6期
15. ^ 郭沫若：我们应该怎样认识外蒙古独立？1949年3月5日毛泽东在七届二中全会上表示：不承认国民党时代的任何外国外交机关和外交人员的合法地位，不承认国民党时代的一切卖国条约的继续存在，从而首先推翻了外蒙古独立的事实。紧接着毛泽东主席出访苏联，为争取苏联外交支持，签订《中苏友好同盟互助条约》，承认蒙古独立。
16. ^ （《文革与诸子百家》，个人文集）
[编辑] 参考文献
* 《关于建国以来党的若干历史问题的决议》，中国共产党中央委员会，1981年
* 《毛泽东生平》 (《中华人民共和国国史百科全书<1949-1999> (中国大百科全书出版社1999年7月版)》)
* 《毛泽东选集》，毛泽东著，人民出版社，1991
* 《红太阳是怎样升起的──延安整风运动的来龙去脉》[4]，高华，香港中文大学出版社
* 《毛泽东为什么要发动文革？》，王若水著
* 《新发现的毛泽东》，王若水著
* 《党史笔记：从遵义会议到延安整风》上、下，何方著，香港利文出版社，2005年5月
* 《西行漫记》，埃德加·斯诺著， 三联书店
* 《毛泽东传（1893——1949）》，金冲及主编
* 《毛泽东传（1949——1976）》，逄先知、金冲及主编
* 《毛泽东私人医生回忆录》，李志绥
* 《百年祸国——从毛泽东到江泽民》孙文广 香港夏菲尔出版社
* 《中国共产革命七十年》，陈永发，联经出版公司，ISBN 9570822732
* 《长征：闻所未闻的故事》，哈里森·索尔茨伯里
* 《毛泽东：鲜为人知的故事》，张戎及其丈夫乔·哈利戴（Jon Halliday），香港开放出版社
[编辑] 参见
* 毛泽东生平
* 毛泽东思想
* 毛主席语录
* 文化大革命
* 炮打司令部
[编辑] 外部链接
维基语录上的相关摘录：
毛泽东
维基共享资源中相关的多媒体资源：
毛泽东
* 新华网 - 毛泽东
* 毛泽东文集
* 毛泽东选集
* 毛泽东旗帜网
* 毛泽东书法作品
* 毛泽东文库
* 毛泽东 在开放式目录中
前任：
李宗仁
中华民国代总统 中国国家元首
1949年-1959年 继任：
刘少奇
首任
原因：中华人民共和国成立 中华人民共和国中央人民政府
委员会主席
1949年10月1日-1954年9月27日 继任：
头衔改变
首任
原因：中华人民共和国元首头衔改变 中华人民共和国主席
1954年9月27日-1959年4月27日 继任：
刘少奇
中华人民共和国国旗
显示▼隐藏▲中华人民共和国主席
毛泽东 | 刘少奇 | 李先念 | 杨尚昆 | 江泽民 | 胡锦涛 |
中國人民政治協商會議標誌
显示▼隐藏▲中国人民政治协商会议全国委员会主席
毛泽东 | 周恩来 | 邓小平 | 邓颖超 | 李先念 | 李瑞环 | 贾庆林
显示▼隐藏▲
查 • 论 • 编 • 历
毛泽东家谱
毛贻昌
(1870-1920)
文七妹
(1867-1919)
毛泽东
(1893-1976)
罗一秀
(1889-1910)
杨开慧
(1901-1930)
贺子珍*
(1910-1984)
江青
(1914-1991)
毛泽民#
(1895-1943)
朱旦华
毛泽覃
(1905-1935)
刘松林
毛岸英
(1922-1950)
毛岸青
(1923-2007)
邵华
(1938-2008)
毛岸龙
(1927-1931)
杨月花
(1929-在世)
毛岸红
(1932-?)
李敏
(1936-在世)
孔从洲
李讷
(1940-在世)
王景清
毛远新
(1941-在世)
毛新宇
(1970-在世)
刘滨
孔继宁
孔东梅
王效芝$
毛东东
(2003-在世)
* 贺子珍产有3子3女，其中毛泽东的五子(1933-?)没有起名，次女(1935-?)下落不明及六子(1938-1938)没有中文名。
# 毛泽民有三任妻子：第一任王淑兰、第二任钱希钧、第三任朱旦华。
$王效芝为李讷与徐姓前夫所生。
显示▼隐藏▲
查 • 论 • 编 • 历
冷战（分类）
1940年代 雅尔塔会议 - 波茨坦会议 - 中国内战 - 杜鲁门主义 - 希腊内战 - 马歇尔计划 - 莫洛托夫计划 - 柏林封锁
1950年代 朝鲜战争 - 匈牙利革命 - 苏伊士运河战争 - 越南战争 - 史泼尼克危机 - 厨房辩论
1960年代 中苏交恶 - 1960年U-2危机 - 猪湾入侵 - 建造柏林墙 - 中印边境战争 - 古巴导弹危机 - 文化大革命 - 珍宝岛事件 - 布拉格之春 - 第一次战略武器限制谈判 - 缓和政策 - 铁列克提事件
1970年代 第二次战略武器限制谈判 - 1972年尼克松访华 - 安哥拉内战 - 中国改革开放 - 中越战争 - 1979年阿富汗战争
1980年代 1983年北约演习 - 波兰团结工联运动 - 新思维（开放性 - 苏联经济改革） - 六四事件 - 1989年革命 - 柏林墙倒下 - 天鹅绒革命 - 罗马尼亚革命
1990年代 苏联解体
参看 铁幕 - 不结盟运动 - 遏制政策 - 第三次世界大战 - 红色恐慌 - 桑地诺民族解放阵线 - 以阿冲突
组织 北约 - 华约 - 中央情报局 - 克格勃 - 经济互助委员会 - 欧洲共同体 - 史塔西
竞赛 军备竞赛 - 核竞赛 - 太空竞赛
意识形态 资本主义 - 帝国主义 - 共产主义 - 斯大林主义 - 勃列日涅夫主义 - 毛泽东思想 - 邓小平理论 - 主体思想 - 反共主义 - 杜鲁门主义 - 麦卡锡主义
人物
* 美国： 杜鲁门 - 艾森豪威尔 - 肯尼迪 - 约翰逊 - 尼克松（基辛格）- 福特 - 卡特 - 里根 - 布什
* 苏联： 斯大林 - 马林科夫 - 赫鲁晓夫 - 勃列日涅夫 - 安德罗波夫 - 契尔年科 - 戈尔巴乔夫 - 叶利钦
* 欧洲： 丘吉尔 - 艾德礼 - 艾登 - 撒切尔夫人 - 戴高乐 - 阿登纳 - 勃兰特 - 科尔 - 昂纳克 - 杜布切克 - 瓦文萨 - 纳吉 - 齐奥塞斯库 - 铁托 - 若望·保禄二世
* 亚洲： 蒋中正 - 蒋经国 - 毛泽东 - 周恩来 - 华国锋 - 邓小平 - 赵紫阳 - 李承晚 - 朴正熙 - 金日成 - 吴廷琰 - 阮文绍 - 胡志明
* 美洲： 卡斯特罗 - 切·格瓦拉
Testing for bug.
取自"http://zh.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=%E6%AF%9B%E6%B3%BD%E4%B8%9C&variant=zh-cn"
13个分类: 生卒模板 | 1893年出生 | 1976年逝世 | 中华民国大陆时期政治人物 | 中国共产党领导人 | 中国人民解放军人物 | 中华人民共和国领导人 | 冷战人物 | 文革时期人物 | 毛泽东 | 毛泽东思想 | 湖南人 | 毛姓
7个隐藏分类: 自2007年11月有未列明来源语句的条目 | 自2007年11月中立性有争议的作品 | 自2007年11月准确性有争议的作品 | 自2007年11月需补充来源的条目 | 自2008年1月有未列明来源语句的条目 | 自2008年4月有未列明来源语句的条目 | 自2008年2月有未列明来源语句的条目
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ساهم معنا في بناء موسوعة ويكيبيديا بكتابة مقالات جديدة.
أسامة بن لادن
من ويكيبيديا، الموسوعة الحرة
اذهب إلى: تصفح, ابحث
هذه المقالة محمية. انقر هنا للمزيد من المعلومات.
كنتيجة للتخريب في هذه الصفحة ، تم تعطيل القدرة على تحرير هذه الصفحة للمستخدمين الجدد أَو المجهولين بشكل مؤقت.
أي تغيير مقترح يمكن أن يناقش على صفحة النقاش، أَو يمكن طلب إزالة الحماية في طلبات إزالة الحماية إذا شعرت بأنها تعيق قدرتك كمساهم جديّ.
أسامة بن لادن
الميلاد 30 يوليو 1957
الرياض، السعودية
الجنسية سعودي
أسامة بن لادن (30 يوليو 1957م)، هو أسامة بن محمد بن عوض بن لادن، مؤسس وزعيم تنظيم القاعدة والذي يوصف بأنه تنظيم إرهابي. ولقد قامت الولايات الأمريكية المتحدة بتوجيه الإتّهام المباشر له لتسبّبه في تفجيرات الخبر وتفجيرات نيروبي ودار السلام، وأحداث 11 سبتمبر 2001 والتي أودت بحياة 2997 شخص. وهو على رأس قائمة المطلوبين في العالم (على قائمة الانتربول)، ومكانه غير معلوم حتى الآن.
وُلد أسامة بن لادن في الرّياض في المملكة العربية السعوديّة لأب ثري وهو محمد بن لادن والذي كان يعمل في المقاولات وأعمال البناء وكان ذو علاقة قوية بعائلة آل سعود الحاكمة في المملكة العربية السعودية. وترتيب أسامة بين إخوانه وأخواته هو 17 من أصل 52 أخ وأخت. وتنحدر أسرة بن لادن من حضرموت في اليمن. ودرس في جامعة الملك عبدالعزيز في جدة وتخرج ببكالوريوس في الاقتصاد ليتولي إدارة أعمال شركة بن لادن وتحمّل بعض من المسؤولية عن أبيه في إدارة الشّركة. وبعد وفاة محمد بن لادن والد أسامة، ترك الأول ثروة تقدّر بـ 300 مليون دولار.
مكنته ثروته وعلاقاته من تحقيق أهدافه في دعم ما يعرف بالمجاهدين الأفغان ضّد الغزو السوفييتي لأفغانستان في العام 1979م. وفي العام 1984م، أسّس بن لادن منظّمة دعويّة وأسماها "مركز الخدمات" و قاعدة للتدريب على فنون الحرب و العمليات المسلحة بأسم "معسكر الفاروق" لدعم وتمويل المجهود الحربي "للمجاهدين الأفغان" ( و للمجاهدين العرب و الاجانب فيما بعد ). ودعمتهما ( المنظمة والمعسكر ) كلّ من أمريكا و باكستان والعربية السعودية وتلقّتا الدّعم المادّي والتّدريبات العسكرية والأمنية من هاتين الدولتين بل وتلقّتا التّدريبات العسكريّة من جهاز المخابرات الأمريكيّة حسب تقرير محطّة الـ BBC الإخباريّة.
وفي العام 1988م، بلور أسامة بن لادن عمله في أفغانستان بإنشاء سجلات القاعدة لتسجيل بيانات المجاهدين، وأنضم اليها المتطوّعون من "مركز الخدمات" ذوي الإختصاصات العسكرية والتأهيل القتالي. وأصبحت فيما بعد رمزاً لتنظيم المجاهدين. بإنسحاب القوّات السوفييتيّة من أفغانستان، وُصف بن لادن بالبطل من قبل العربية السعودية ولكن سرعان ما تلاشى هذا الدّعم حين هاجم بن لادن التواجد الأمريكي في السعودية إبّان الغزو العراقي للكويت في عام 1990م، بل وهاجم النظام السعودي لسماحه بتواجد القوات الأمريكية التى يصفها بن لادن "بالمادية" و "الفاسدة" وأسفر تلاشي الدعم السعودي بخروج بن لادن إلى السودان في نفس العام وتأسيس بن لادن لمركز عمليات جديد في السودان. ونجح بن لادن في تصدير أفكاره الثورية إلى جنوب شرق آسيا، والولايات المتحدة، وأفريقيا، وأوروبا. وبعدها غادر بن لادن السودان في العام 1996م، متوجّهاً إلى أفغانستان نتيجة علاقته القوية بجماعة "طالبان" التي كانت تسيّر أُمور أفغانستان والمسيطرة على الوضع في أفغانستان. وهناك أعلن الحرب على الولايات المتحدة الأمريكية.
وفي العام 1998م، تلاقت جهود أسامة بن لادن مع جهود أيمن الظواهري الأمين العام لتنظيم الجهاد الإسلامي المصري المحظور ، وأطلق الرّجلان فتوى تدعو إلى قتل الأمريكان وحلفاءهم أينما ثُقِفوا وجلائهم من المسجد الأقصى والمسجد الحرام. وبعد أحداث الحادي عشر من سبتمبر، وجّهت الولايات المتحدة أصابع الإتهام إلى بن لادن والقاعدة. وأثنى وبارك أسامة منفذي العمليات. وفي ديسمبر/كانون الأول من العام 2001م، تمكّنت القوات الأمريكية من الحصول على شريط فيديو يصوّر بن لادن مع جمعٌ من مؤّيديه يتحدّث في الشريط عن دهشته من كميّة الخراب والقتلى التي حلّت بالبرج وأن الحصيلة لم تكن بالحسبان بل فاقت توقّعاته، وتم أستخدام هذا الشريط كأحد الأدلة العلنية على أن لـ بن لادن علم مسبق بالحدث وتفاصيله، بينما تبقى بعض الأدلة غير معلن عنها لدواعي الأمن القومي والحرب على الإرهاب.
ولايزال أسامة بن لادن متواري عن الأنظار ومن غير المعروف إن كان لازال على قيد الحياة. وآخر مكان معلوم عن بن لادن هي مدينة "قندهار" في أفغانستان في العام 2001م. وطلبت الولايات المتحدة من طالبان تسليمها بن لادن ولكن أفغانستان طالبت الولايات المتحدة بأدلة على تورط أسامة بن لادن في أحداث الحادي عشر من سبتمبر/أيلول 2001م. وعلى أثر ذلك أجتاحت الولايات المتّحدة أفغانستان وأطاحت بحكومة طالبان إلا ان الولايات المتحدة لم تستطع القبض على بن لادن ولا يعلم إن كان القصف الذي قامت به الولايات المتحدة على جبال "تورا بورا" قد نال من بن لادن أم لا. وكان يُعتقد أن بن لادن قد مات موتةً طبيعيّة لإصابته بفشل كلوي والذي يستدعي عناية طبية فائقة والتي تصعب على بن لادن في وضعه الحالي. (كثير من التقارير تنفي إصابته بالفشل الكلوي كما في اللقاء مع طبيبه الخاص)، ولكن من حين لآخر، تظهر أشرطة مرئية و صوتية له متحدثا عن قضايا الساعة مما يؤكد أنه ما زال على قيد الحياة.
وفي 7 مايو 2004م، ظهر شريط صوتي منسوب لأسامة بن لادن يحث فيه على النيل من الحاكم المدني الأمريكي بول بريمر، ويرصد بن لادن مكافأة ذهبية لمن يتمكن من قتله. وشمل بن لادن كل من القائد العسكري للقوات الأمريكية في العراق ونائبه والأمين العام للأمم المتحدة كوفي أنان، ومبعوثه الخاص في العراق الأخضر الإبراهيمي.
فهرس
[إخفاء]
* 1 مابعد أحداث 11 سبتمبر
* 2 رأي علماء المسلمين في ابن لادن
* 3 انظر أيضاً
* 4 مصادر
مابعد أحداث 11 سبتمبر
أختفى زعيم تنظيم القاعدة عن الانظار بعد الحرب على طالبان والقاعدة في أفغانستان ويعتقد أن أسامة بن لادن لايزال مختبئاً في المنطقة الجبلية لأفغانستان والمتاخمة للحدود الباكستانية. وفي شريط مرئي بثته قناة الجزيرة في 30 أكتوبر 2004م، برر بن لادن ولأول مرة سبب إقدام القاعدة على توجيه ضربة للمباني المدنية في الولايات المتحدة، فقد علل بن لادن الضربة "بعدما طفح الكيل بالمسلمين من إقدام إسرائيل على اجتياح لبنان عام 1982م، وما تفعله من أعمال إرهابية ضد المدنيين الأبرياء في فلسطين وماتشهده الساحة الإسلامية من أنتهاكات إسرائيلية حيال الشعب الفلسطيني. وما أيضا يراه كل العالم بأن أمريكا تساند وتبارك إسرائيل بما تفعله باحتلالها أراض ليست حقا لها لا في تاريخ أو حضارة. وأدعى ان الرئيس الأمريكي مخطئ بتفسيره أن القاعدة مناهضة للحرية ويستند قوله على أن القاعدة تقول الحقيقة التي لبثت أمريكا دوما بإخفائها".
رأي علماء المسلمين في ابن لادن
لا يعرف عن ابن لادن طلبه للعلم الشرعي، ورغم ذلك فقد هاجم علماء المسلمين لأنهم في رأيه يوافقون على ظلم أمريكا وإسرائيل. لكن ما يفعله ويدعو إليه هو سبب لزيادة الظلم حسب من لا يوافقه. ورغم أنه ذُكر أن الشيخ ابن عثيمين مدحه !، إلا أن ذلك كان قبل خروجه على أمريكا وتطور فكره إلى درجة الإرهاب للعدو والتكفير لغير المسلمين، وسرعان ما أدانه ابن عثيمين وغيره. [1]
انظر أيضاً
اقرأ نصا ذا علاقة بأسامة بن لادن، في ويكي مصدر.
* سليمان بوغيث
* أيمن الظواهري
* طالبان
مصادر
1. ^ http://www.sahab.net/sahab/showthread.php?s=&threadid=274671
تم الاسترجاع من "http://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A3%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%A9_%D8%A8%D9%86_%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%AF%D9%86"
تصنيفات الصفحة: حماية جزئية | معارضون سعوديون | إسلاميون | القاعدة | مواليد 1957 | فارون مطلوبون من قبل الولايات المتحدة
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* آخر تعديل لهذه الصفحة كان في 20:23، 27 يوليو 2008.
* كل النصوص منشورة تحت رخصة جنو للوثائق الحرة (اقرأ حقوق التأليف والنشر للحصول على التفاصيل).
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